Disrespect and the experience of injustice

Annual Review of Psychology

Volumn 52, Issue , 2001, Pages 527-553

  Miller, Dale T ^a  

^a PRINCETON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Distributive justice; Fairness; Justice; Procedural justice; Retribution

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ATTITUDE; HUMAN; PERCEPTION; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL JUSTICE;

ATTITUDE; HUMANS; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL JUSTICE; SOCIAL PERCEPTION;

EID: 0035221584     PISSN: 00664308     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.527     Document Type: Article

References (212)

1. Adams JS. 1965. Inequity in social exchange. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. L Berkowitz, 2:267-99. New York: Academic
2. Alexander F, Staub H. 1956. The Criminal, the Judge, and the Public. Glencoe, IL: Free Press
3. Aram JD, Salipante PF. 1981. An evaluation of organizational due process in the resolution of employee/employer conflict. Acad. Manage. Rev. 6:197-204
4. Arendt H. 1964. Eichmann in Jerusalem. New York: Viking
5. Aristotle. 1945. The Nicomachean Ethics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
6. Averill JR. 1983. Studies on anger and aggression: implications for theories of emotion. Am. Psychol. 28:1145-60
7. Bacon F. 1909 (1597). Essays. In Harvard Classics, Vol. 3, pp. 129-46. New York: Collier
8. Baron RA. 1988. Attributions and organizational conflict: the mediating role of apparent sincerity. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 69:272-79
9. Baron RA. 1993. Criticism (informal negative feedback) as a source of perceived unfairness in organizations: effects, mechanisms, and countermeasures. In Justice in the Workplace: Approaching Fairness in Human Resource Management, ed. R Cropanzo, pp. 155-70. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
10. Batson CD. 1998. Altruism and prosocial behavior. See Gilbert et al 1998, pp. 282-316
11. Batson CD, Bowers MJ, Leonard EA, Smith EC. 2000. Does personal morality exacerbate or restrain retaliation after being harmed? Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 26:35-45
12. Berger J, Zelditch M, Anderson B, Cohen BP. 1972. Structural aspects of distributive justice: a status value formulation. In Sociological Theories in Progress, ed. J Berger, M Zelditch, B Anderson, 2:119-46. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin
13. Bettencourt BA, Miller N. 1996. Sex differences in aggression as a function of provocation: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 119:422-47
14. Bies RJ. 1987. The predicament of injustice: the management of moral outrage. In Research in Organizational Behavior, ed. LL Cummings, BM Staw, 9:289-319. Greenwich, CT: JAI
15. Bies RJ. 1993. Privacy and procedural justice in organizations. Soc. Justice Res. 6:69-81
16. Bies RJ, Moag JS. 1986. Interactional justice: communication criteria for fairness. In Research on Negotiation in Organizations, ed. B Sheppard, 1:43-55. Greenwich, CT: JAI
17. Bies RJ, Shapiro DL. 1987. Interactional fairness judgments: the influence of causal accounts. Soc. Justice Res. 1:199-218
18. Bies RJ, Shapiro DL, Cummings LL. 1988. Causal accounts and managing organizational conflict: Is it enough to say it is not my fault? Commun. Res. 15:381-99
19. Bies RJ, Tripp TM. 1996. Beyond distrust: getting even and the need for revenge. In Trust in Organization, ed. RM Kramer, TR Tyler, pp. 246-60. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
20. Bies RJ, Tyler TR. 1993. The "litigation explosion" in organizations: a test of alternative psychological explanations. Organ. Sci. 4:352-66
21. Blau P. 1964. Justice in social exchange. Sociol. Inq. 34:193-246
22. Bobocel DR, Agar SE, Meyer JP, Irving PG. 1998. Managerial accounts and fairness perceptions in conflict resolution: differentiating the effects of minimizing responsibility and providing justification. Basic Appl. Soc. Psychol. 20:133-43
23. Bobocel DR, Farrell AC. 1996. Sex-based promotion decisions and interactional fairness: investigating the influence of managerial accounts. J. Appl. Psychol. 81:22-35
24. Bond M, Venus C. 1991. Resistance to group or personal insults in an in-group or out-group context. Int. J. Psychol. 26:83-94
25. Borden RJ. 1975. Witnessed aggression: influence of an observer's sex and values on aggressive responding. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 31:567-73
26. Bourdieu P. 1965. The sentiment of honour in the Kabyle Society. In The Nature of Human Society: Honor and Shame, ed. JG Peristiany, pp. 191-242. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
27. Braithwaite J. 1989. Crime, Shame, and Reintegration. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
28. Brockner J, Wiesenfeld BM. 1996. An integrative framework for explaining reactions to decisions: the interactive effects of outcomes and procedures. Psychol. Bull. 120:189-208
29. Capek SM. 1993. The "environmental justice" frame: a conceptual discussion and application. Soc. Probl. 1:5-24
30. Carpenter B, Darley JM. 1978. A naïve psychological analysis of counter-aggression. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 4:68-72
31. Clayton SD. 1992. The experience of injustice: some characteristics and correlates. Soc. Justice Res. 5:71-91
32. Cohen D, Nisbett RE, Bowdle BF, Schwarz N. 1996. Insult, aggression, and the Southern culture of honor: an "experimental ethnography." J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 70:945-60
33. Cohen RL. 1986. Power and justice in intergroup relations. In Justice in Social Relations, ed. HW Bierhoff, RL Cohen, J Greenberg, pp. 65-84. New York: Plenum
34. Cooley CH. 1902. Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Scribners
35. Cropanzo R, Byrne ZS. 2000. How workers manage relationships in a complex social world: a multi-foci approach to procedural and interactional justice. In Cooperation in Modern Society: Dilemmas and Solutions, ed. M Van Vugt, M Snyder, T Tyler, A Biels. London: Routledge. In press
36. Cropanzo R, Greenberg J. 1997. Progress in organizational justice: tunneling through the maze. In International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, ed. CL Cooper, IT Robertson, pp. 317-72. New York: Wiley & Sons
37. Crosby F. 1976. A model of egoistical relative deprivation. Psychol Rev. 83:85-113
38. Crosby F, Gonzalez-Intel A. 1984. Relative deprivation and equity theories: felt injustice and the undeserved benefits of others. In The Sense of Injustice: Social Psychological Perspectives, ed. R Folger, pp. 141-66. New York: Plenum
39. DeRidder R, Schruijer SG, Tripathi RC. 1992. Norm violation as a precipitating factor of negative intergroup relations. In Norm Violations and Intergroup Relations, ed. R DeRidder RC, Tripathi, pp. 3-37. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
40. Deutsch M. 1985. Distributive Justice: A Social Psychological Perspective. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
41. DeWaal F. 1996. Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
42. Dodge KA, Price JM, Bachorowski JA, Newman JP. 1990. Hostile attribution biases in severely aggressive adolescents. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 99:385-92
43. Dodge KA, Somberg DR. 1987. Hostile attribution biases among aggressive boys are exacerbated under conditions of threats to the self. Child Dev. 58:213-24
44. Donnerstein E, Walster E. 1982. Aggression and inequity. In Equity and Justice in Social Behavior, ed. J Greenberg, R Cohen, pp. 309-36. New York: Academic
45. Durkheim E. 1858. The Division of Labor in Society. Transl. G. Simpson, 1964. Toronto: Collier-Macmillan
46. Dyck RJ, Rule BG. 1978. Effect on retaliation of causal attributions concerning attack. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 36:521-29
47. Elster J. 1992. Local Justice: How Institutions Allocate Scarce Goods and Necessary Burdens. New York: Russell Sage
48. Ellsworth P, Gross SR. 1994. Hardening of the attitudes: Americans' views on the death penalty. J. Soc. Issues 50:19-52
49. Emery RE, Mathews SG, Kitzmann KM. 1994. Child custody mediation and litigation: parents' satisfaction and functioning one year after settlement. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 62:124-29
50. Epstein S, Taylor SP. 1967. Instigation to aggression as a function of degree of defeat and perceived aggressive intent of the opponent. J. Pers. 35:265-89
51. Erikson K. 1966. Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance. New York: Wiley & Sons
52. Etzioni A. 1988. The Moral Dimension: Toward a New Economics. New York: Free Press
53. Feather NT. 1996. Reactions to penalties for an offense in relation to authoritarianism, values, perceived responsibility, perceived seriousness and deservingness. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 71:571-87
54. Feather NT. 1999. Values, Achievement, and Justice: Studies in the Psychology of Deservingness. New York: Kluwer Acad.
55. Felson RB. 1982. Impression management and the escalation of aggression and violence. Soc. Psychol. Q. 45:245-54
56. Felson RB, Ribner SA. 1981. An attributional approach to accounts and sanctions for criminal violence. Soc. Psychol. Q. 44:137-42
57. Ferguson TJ, Rule BG. 1980. Effects of inferential set, outcome severity, and basis for responsibility in children's evaluation of aggressive acts. Dev. Psychol. 16:141-46
58. Ferguson TJ, Rule BG. 1981. An attributional perspective on anger and aggression. In Perspectives on Aggression: Theoretical and Empirical Review, ed. R Geen, RE Donnerstein, pp. 41-74. San Diego, CA: Academic
59. Fincham FD, Jaspars JM. 1980. Attribution of responsibility: From man the scientist to man as lawyer. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. L Berkowitz, 13:81-138 New York: Academic
60. Folger R. 1977. Distributive and procedural justice: combined impact of "voice"and improvement on experienced inequity. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 35:108-19
61. Folger R, Cropanzo R. 1998. Organizational Justice and Human Resource Management. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
62. Folger R, Martin C. 1986. Relative deprivation and referent cognitions: distributive and procedural justice effects. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 22:532-46
63. Folger R, Pugh SD. 2001. The just world and Winston Churchill: an approach/avoid conflict about psychological distance when harming victims. See Ross & Miller 2001. In press
64. Folger R, Rosenfield D, Robinson T. 1983. Relative deprivation and referent cognitions. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 45:172-84
65. Folger R, Skarlicki DP. 1998. A popcorn metaphor for employee aggression. In Dysfunctional Behavior in Organizations: Violent and Deviant Behavior. Monographs in Organizational Behavior and Industrial Relations, ed. R Griffin, A O'Leary-Kelly, J Collins, pp. 43-81. Stamford, CT: JAI
66. Frank RH. 1988. Passions Within Reasons: The Strategic Role of Emotions. New York: Norton
67. Frankena WK. 1963. Ethics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
68. Furby L. 1986. Psychology and justice. In Justice: Views from the Social Sciences, ed. R Cohen, pp. 153-204. New York: Plenum
69. Gamson WA. 1968. Power and Discontent. Homewood, IL: Dorsey
70. Garfinkel H. 1956. Conditions of successful degradation ceremonies. Am. J. Sociol. 61:420-35
71. Geen RG. 1998. Aggression and antisocial behavior. See Gilbert et al 1998, pp. 317-56
72. Gellatly IR. 1995. Individual and group determinants of employee absenteeism: test of a causal model. J. Organ. Behav. 16:469-85
73. Gergen KJ, Gergen M. 1988. Narrative and the self as relationship. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. L Berkowitz, 21:17-56. San Diego, CA: Academic
74. Giacalone RA, Greenberg J. 1997. Anti-Social Behavior in Organizations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
75. Giacalone RA, Riordan CA, Rosenfeld P. 1997. Employee sabotage: toward a practitioner-scholar understanding. See Giacalone & Greenberg 1997, pp. 109-29
76. Gilbert DT, Fiske ST, Lindzey G, eds. 1998. Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2. New York: McGraw-Hill. 4th ed.
77. Goffman E. 1952. On cooling the mark out. Psychiatry 15:451-63
78. Goffman E. 1971. Relations in Public. New York: Harper & Row
79. Graham S, Hudley C. 1994. Attributions of aggressive and nonaggressive African-American male early adolescents. Dev. Psychol. 30:365-73
80. Greenberg J. 1990. Employee theft as a reaction to underpayment inequity: the hidden costs of pay cuts. J. Appl. Psychol. 75:561-68
81. Greenberg J. 1993. Stealing in the name of justice. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 54:81-103
82. Greenberg J. 1994. Using socially fair treatment to promote acceptance of a worksite smoking ban. J. Appl. Psychol. 79:288-97
83. Greenberg J, Scott KS. 1996. Why do workers bite the hands that feed them? Employee theft as a social exchange process. In Research in Organizational Behavior, ed. BM Staw, LL Cummings, 8:111-56. Greenwich, CT: JAI
84. Greenwell J, Dengerink HA. 1973. The role of perceived versus actual attack in human physical aggression. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 26:66-71
85. Guerts S, Buunk BP, Schaufeli WB. 1994. Social comparisons and absenteeism: a structural modeling approach. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 54:81-103
86. Gusfield J. 1963. Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement. Urbana: Univ. Ill. Press
87. Hafer CL, Olson JM. 1993. Beliefs in a just world, discontent, and assertive actions by working women. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 19:30-38
88. Hamilton VL, Sanders J. 1992. Everyday Justice: Responsibility and the Individual in Japan and the United States. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
89. Harvey MD, Enzle ME. 1978. Effects of retaliation latency and provocation level on judged blameworthiness for retaliatory aggression. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 4:579-82
90. Heider F. 1958. The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York: Wiley & Sons
91. Heilman ME, Lucas JA, Kaplow SR. 1990. Self-derogating consequences of sex-based preferential selection: the moderating effect of initial confidence. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 46:202-16
92. Herek GM, Glunt EK. 1988. An epidemic of stigma: public reactions to AIDS. Am. Psychol. 43:886-91
93. Heuer L, Blumenthal E, Douglas A, Weinblatt T. 1999. A deservingness approach to respect as a relationally based fairness judgements. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 1279-92
94. Hogan R, Emler NP. 1981. Retributive justice. See Lerner & Lerner 1981, pp. 125-44
95. Homans GC. 1961. Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World
96. Homans GC. 1976. Commentary. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. L Berkowitz, E Walster, 9:231-44. Orlando, FL: Academic
97. Horai J. 1977. Attributional conflict. J. Soc. Issues 33:88-100
98. Huo YJ, Smith HJ, Tyler TR, Lind EA. 1996. Superordinate identification, subgroup identification, and justice concerns. Psychol. Sci. 7:40-45
99. Imershine A, Brents A. 1992. The impact of large medical malpractice awards on malpractice awardees. J. Legal Med. 13:33-49
100. Jeremier J, Knights D, Nord WR. 1994. Resistance and Power in Organizations. London: Routledge
101. Johnson TE, Rule BG. 1986. Mitigating circumstances information, censure, and aggression. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 50:537-42
102. Kahneman D, Knetsch JL, Thaler RH. 1986. Fairness and the assumptions of economics. J. Bus. 59:285-300
103. Keeva S. 1999. Does law mean never having to say you are sorry? Am. Bar J. 85:64-68
104. Kelsen HJ. 1943. Society and Nature. Chicago, IL: Univ. Chicago Press
105. Keltner D, Ellsworth PC, Edwards K. 1993. Beyond simple pessimism: effects of sadness and anger on social perception. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 64:740-52
106. Kim SH, Smith RH, Brigham NL. 1998. Effects of power imbalance and the presence of third parties on reactions to harm: upward and downward revenge. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 24:353-61
107. Koper G, Van Knippenberg D, Bouhuijs F, Vermunt R, Wilke H. 1993. Procedural fairness and self-esteem. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 23:313-25
108. Kramer RM. 1994. The sinister attribution error. Motiv. Emot. 18:199-231
109. Krebs D, Miller DT. 1985. Altruism and aggression. In Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. G Lindzey, E Aronson, 2:1-71. New York: Random House. 3rd ed.
110. Lazarus RS. 1991. Progress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion. Am. Psychol. 46:819-34
111. Lerner MJ. 1977. The justice motive: some hypotheses as to its origins and forms. J. Pers. 45:1-52
112. Lerner MJ. 1980. The Belief in a Just World. New York: Plenum
113. Lerner MJ. 1987. Integrating societal and psychological rules of entitlement: the basic task of each social actor and a fundamental task for the social sciences. Soc. Justice Res. 1:107-25
114. Lerner MJ, Lerner S. 1981. The Justice Motive in Soc. Behav. New York: Plenum
115. Leung K, Chiu WH, Au YF. 1993. Sympathy and support for industrial actions: a justice analysis. J. Appl. Psychol. 78:781-87
116. Leventhal GS. 1976. Fairness in social relationships. In Contemporary Topics in Social Psychology, ed. JW Thibaut, JT Spence, RC Carson, pp. 212-39. Morristown, NJ: Gen. Learn.
117. Lind EA. 1997. Litigation and claiming in organizations: anti-social behavior or quest for justice? See Giacalone & Greenberg 1997, pp. 150-71
118. Lind EA. 2000. Fairness heuristic theory: justice judgments as pivotal cognitions in organizational relations. In Advances in Organizational Justice, ed. J Greenberg, R Cropanzo. Lexington, MA: New Lexington. In press
119. Lind EA, Greenberg J, Scott KS, Welchans TD. 2000. The winding road from employee to complaint: situational and psychological determinants of wrongful termination claims. Admin. Sci. Q. In press
120. Lind EA, Kanfer R, Barley PC. 1990. Voice, control, and procedural justice: instrumental and noninstrumental concerns in fairness judgements. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 59:952-59
121. Lind EA, Kulik CT, Ambrose M, de Vera-Park MW. 1993. Individual and corporate dispute resolution: using procedural fairness as a decision heuristic. Admin. Sci. Q. 38:224-51
122. Lind EA, Tyler TR. 1988. The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice. New York: Plenum
123. Lindzey G, Aronson E. 1985. Handbook of Social Psychology, Vols. 1 & 2. New York: Random House. 3rd ed.
124. Lupfer MB, Weeks KP, Doan KA, Houston DA. 2000. Folk conceptions of fairness and unfairness. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 30:299-346
125. Mansbridge JJ. 1990. Beyond Self-interest. Chicago, IL: Univ. Chicago Press
126. Markovsky B. 1991. Prospects for a cognitive-structural justice theory. In Social Justice in Human Relations, ed. R Vermunt, H Steensma, 1:33-58. New York: Plenum
127. Martin J, Brickman P, Murray A. 1984. Moral outrage and pragmatism: explanations for collective action. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 20: 484-96
128. Mellers BA, Baron J. 1993. Perspectives in Justice: Theory and Applications. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
129. Mellers BA, Schwartz A, Cooke AD. 1998. Judgment and decision making. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 49:447-77
130. Merry SE, Silbey SS. 1984. What do plaintiffs want? Reexamining the concept of dispute. Just. Sys. J. 9:151-78
131. Merton RK, Kitt AS. 1950. Contributions to the theory of reference group behavior. In Continuities in Social Research: Studies in the Scope and Method of "The American Soldier," ed. RK Merton, PF Lazarsfeld, pp. 40-105. Glencoe, IL: Free Press
132. Messick DM, Bloom S, Boldizar JP, Samuelson CD. 1985. Why we are fairer than others. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 21:480-500
133. Mikula G. 1986. The experience of injustice: toward a better understanding of its phenomenology. In Justice in Social Relations, ed. HW Bierhoff, RL Cohen, J Greenberg, pp. 103-24. New York: Plenum
134. Mikula G. 1993. On the experience of injustice. In European Review of Social Psychology, ed. W Stroebe, M Hewstone, vol. 4, pp. 223-44. Chichester, UK: Wiley
135. Mikula G, Petri B, Tanzer N. 1990. What people regard as unjust: types and structures of everyday experiences of injustice. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 20:133-49
136. Mikula G, Scherer KR, Athenstaedt V. 1998. The role of injustice in the elicitation of different emotional reactions. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 24:769-83
137. Milgram S, Liberty HJ, Toledo R, Wackenhut J. 1986. Response to intrusion into waiting lines. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 51:683-89
138. Miller DT. 1999. The norm of self-interest. Am. Psychol. 54:1-8
139. Miller DT, McCann DC. 1979. Children's reactions to the victims and perpetrators of injustices. Child Dev. 50:861-68
140. Miller DT, Prentice DA. 1996. The construction of social norms and standards. In Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles, ed. ET Higgins, AW Kruglanski, pp. 799-829. New York: Guilford
141. Miller DT, Vidmar N. 1981. The social psychology of punishment reactions. See Lerner & Lerner 1981, pp. 145-72
142. Miller WI. 1993. Humiliation and Other Essays on Honor, Social Discomfort, and Violence. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
143. Mitchell G, Tetlock PE, Mellers BA, Ordonez LD. 1993. Judgments of social justice: compromises between equality and efficiency. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 65:629-39
144. Moore B. 1978. Injustice: The Social Basis of Obedience and Revolt. White Plains, NY: Sharpe
145. Moorman RH. 1991. Relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship: Do fairness perceptions influence employee citizenship? J. Appl. Psychol. 76:845-55
146. Neuman JH, Baron RA. 1997. Aggression in the workplace. See Giacalone & Greenberg 1997, pp. 37-67
147. Niehoff BP, Moorman RH. 1993. Justice as a mediator of the relationship between methods of monitoring and organizational citizenship behavior. Acad. Manage. J. 36:527-56
148. Nietzsche F. 1967 (1887). On the Genealogy of Morals. New York: Vintage
149. Novaco RW. 1976. The functions and regulation of the arousal of anger. Am. J. Psychiatry 133:1124-28
150. Ohbuchi K, Kameda M, Agarie N. 1989. Apology as aggression control: its role in mediating appraisal of and response to harm. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 56:219-27
151. Olson JM, Herman CP, Zanna MP. 1986. Relative Deprivation and Social Comparison: The Ontario Symposium. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
152. Opotow S. 1990. Moral exclusion and injustice: an introduction. J. Soc. Issues 46(1):1-20
153. Pepitone A. 1975. Social psychological perspectives on crime and punishment. J. Soc. Issues 31(4):197-216
154. Pitkin HF. 1981. Justice: on relating private and public. Polit. Theory 9:327-52
155. Pitt-Rivers J. 1965. Honour and social status. In The Nature of Human Society: Honour and Shame, ed. JG Peristiany, pp. 19-78. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson
156. Ranulf S. 1964. Moral Indignation and Middle-Class Psychology. New York: Schocken
157. Rawls J. 1971. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
158. Reichle B, Montada L. 1994. Problems with the transition to parenthood: perceived responsibility for restrictions and losses and the experience of injustice. In Justice in Close Relationships: Entitlement and the Affectional Bond, ed. MJ Lerner, G Mikula, pp. 205-28. New York: Plenum
159. Riordan CA, Marlin NA, Kellogg RT. 1983. The effectiveness of accounts following transgression. Soc. Psychol. Q. 46:213-19
160. Robinson PH, Darley JM. 1995. Justice, Liability, and Blame: Community Views and the Criminal Law. San Francisco: Westview
161. Robinson SL. 1996. Trust and breach of the psychological contract. Admin. Sci. Q. 41:574-99
162. Robinson SL, Kraatz MS, Rousseau DM. 1994. Changing obligations and the psychological contract: a longitudinal study. Acad. Manage. J. 37:137-52
163. Ross M, Miller DT. 2001. The Justice Motive in Social Life: Essays in Honor of Melvin Lerner. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. In press
164. Rousseau DM. 1995. Psychological Contracts in Organizations: Understanding Written and Unwritten Agreements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
165. Rumsey MG. 1976. Effects of defendant background and remorse on sentencing judgments. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 6:64-68
166. Sampson EE. 1983. Justice and the Critique of Pure Psychology. New York: Plenum
167. Scher SJ. 1997. Measuring the consequences of injustice. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 23:482-97
168. Schlenker BR, Darby BW. 1981. The use of apologies in social predicaments. Soc. Psychol. Q. 44:271-78
169. Schmitt BH, Dube L, Leclerc F. 1992. Intrusions into waiting lines: Does the queue constitute a social system? J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 63:806-15
170. Schwartz GS, Kane T, Joseph J, Tedeschi JT. 1978. The effects of post-transgression remorse on perceived aggression, attributions of intent, and level of punishment. Br. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 17:293-97
171. Sears DO, Funk CL. 1991. The role of self-interest in social and political attitudes. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. MP Zanna, 24:2-92. Orlando, FL: Academic
172. Shapiro DL, Buttner EH, Barry B. 1994. Explanations for rejection decisions: What factors enhance their perceived adequacy and moderate their enhancement of justice perceptions. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 58:346-68
173. Shaw M, Reitan H. 1969. Attribution of responsibility as a basis for sanctioning behavior. Br. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 8:217-25
174. Shuman D. 2000. The role of apology in tort law. Judicature 83:180-89
175. Shweder RA, Bourne EJ. 1984. Does the concept of person vary cross-culturally? In Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self, and Emotion, ed. RA Shweder, R Levine, pp. 158-99. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
176. Sitkin SB, Bies RJ. 1993. Social accounts in conflict situations: using explanations to manage conflict. Hum. Relat. 46:349-70
177. Skarlicki DP, Folger R. 1997. Retaliation for perceived unfair treatment: examining the roles of procedural and interactional justice. J. Appl. Psychol. 82:434-43
178. Skitka LJ, Tetlock PE. 1992. Allocating scarce resources: a contingency model of distributive justice. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 28:491-522
179. Smith A. 1869 (1759). A Theory of Moral Sentiments. London: Ball & Daldy
180. Smith HJ, Tyler TR, Huo YJ, Ortiz D, Lind AE. 1998. Group membership, self-esteem, and procedural justice. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 34:470-93
181. Solomon RC. 1990. A Passion for Justice: Emotions and the Origins of the Social Contract. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
182. Sommer KL, Williams KD, Ciarocco NJ, Baumeister RF. 2000. Explorations into the intrapsychic and interpersonal consequences of social ostracism. Basic Appl. Soc. Psychol. In press
183. Steil JM, Tuchman B, Deutsch M. 1978. An exploratory study of the meanings of injustice and frustration. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 4:393-98
184. Stouffer S, Lumsdaine M, Williams R, Smith M, Janis I, et al. 1949. The American Soldier. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
185. Sykes GM, Matza D. 1957. Techniques of neutralization: a theory of delinquency. Am. J. Sociol. 22:664-70
186. Taylor MS, Tracy KB, Renard MK, Harrison JK, Carroll SJ. 1995. Due process in performance appraisal: a quasi-experiment in procedural justice. Admin. Sci. Q. 40:495-502
187. Tedeschi JT, Nesler MS. 1993. Grievances: development and reactions. In Aggression and Violence: Social Interactionist Perspectives, ed. RB Felson, JT Tedeschi, pp. 13-46. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
188. Tedeschi JT, Smith RB, Brown RC. 1974. A reinterpretation of research on aggression. Psychol. Bull. 81:540-62
189. Tennen H, Affleck G. 1991. Blaming others for threatening events. Psychol. Bull. 108:209-32
190. Thibaut JT, Kelley HH. 1959. The Social Psychology of Groups. New York: Wiley & Sons
191. Thibaut JT, Walker L. 1975. Procedural Justice: A Psychological Perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
192. Thompson L. 1991. Family work: women's sense of fairness. J. Fam. Issues 12:181-96
193. Toch H. 1969. Violent Men: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Violence. Chicago, IL: Aldine
194. Torestad B. 1990. When is anger provoking? A psychophysical study of perceived causes of anger. Aggress. Behav. 16:9-26
195. Tyler TR. 1987. Conditions leading to value expressive affect in judgments of procedural justice: a test of four models. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 52:333-44
196. Tyler TR. 1990. Why People Obey the law: Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and Compliance. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
197. Tyler TR. 1994. Psychological models of the justice motive: antecedents of distributive and procedural justice. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 67:850-63
198. Tyler TR, Bies RJ. 1990. Beyond formal procedures: the interpersonal context of procedural justice. In Applied Social Psychology and Organizational Contexts, ed. JS Carroll, pp. 77-98. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
199. Tyler TR, Blader S. 2001. Cooperation in Groups: Procedural Justice, Social Identity, and Behavioral Engagement. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. In press
200. Tyler TR, Boeckmann RJ. 1997. Three strikes and you are out, but why? Law Soc. Rev. 31:237-65
201. Tyler TR, Boeckmann RJ, Smith HJ, Huo YJ. 1997. Social Justice in a Diverse Society Boulder, CO: Westview
202. Tyler TR, Lind EA. 1992. A relational model of authority in groups. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. L Berkowitz, 25:115-92. Orlando, FL: Academic
203. Tyler TR, Lind EA. 2000. Procedural justice. In Handbook of Justice Research in Law, ed. J Sanders, VL Hamilton. New York: Kluwer Acad. In press
204. Tyler TR, Rasinski K, Spodick N. 1985. Influence of voice and satisfaction with leaders: exploring the meaning of process control. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 42:333-44
205. Tyler TR, Smith HJ. 1998. Social justice and social movements. See Gilbert et al 1998, pp. 595-662
206. Van den Bos K, Lind EA, Vermunt R, Wilke HAM. 1997. How do I judge my outcome when I do not know the outcome of others? The psychology of the fair process effect. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 72:1034-46
207. Vermunt R, Wit A, Van den Bos K, Lind EA. 1997. The effect of inaccurate procedure on protest: the mediating role of perceived unfairness and situational self-esteem. Soc. Justice Res. 9:109-20
208. Vidmar N. 2000. Retribution and revenge. In Handbook of Justice Research in Law, ed. J Sanders, VL Hamilton. New York: Kluwer Acad. In press
209. Vidmar N, Miller DT. 1980. Social psychological processes underlying attitudes toward legal punishment. Law Soc. Rev. 14:401-39
210. Walster E, Walster GW, Berscheid E. 1978. Equity: Theory and Research. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon
211. Westermarck E. 1932. Ethical Relativity. New York: Harcourt Brace
212. Zillmann D. 1979. Hostility and Aggression. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum