Regulation of γ-Glutamylcysteine synthetase subunit gene expression: Insights into transcriptional control of antioxidant defenses

Free Radical Research

Volumn 32, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 281-301

  Wild, Angela C ^a   Mulcahy, R Timothy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

Gene regulation; Glutamate cysteine ligase; Glutathione; Oxidative stress

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT; GLUTAMATE CYSTEINE LIGASE; HEAVY METAL; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; OXIDIZING AGENT; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR AP 1;

CELL PROTECTION; DNA RESPONSIVE ELEMENT; ENZYME INDUCTION; ENZYME SUBUNIT; GENE EXPRESSION REGULATION; GLUTATHIONE METABOLISM; HUMAN; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS; NONHUMAN; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION;

EID: 0034071372     PISSN: 10715762     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10715760000300291     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. A. Meister and M.E. Andersen (1983) Glutathione. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 52, 711-760.
2. G. Foure Seelig, R.P. Simondsen and A. Meister (1984) Reversible dissociation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase into two subunits. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 259, 9345-9347.
3. C.-S. Huang, L.-S. Chang, M.E. Anderson and A. Meister (1993) Catalytic and regulatory properties of the heavy subunit of rat kidney γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 268, 19 675-19 680.
4. I. Misra and O.W. Griffith (1998) Expression and purification of human γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase. Protein Expression and Purification, 13, 268-276.
5. R.T. Mulcahy, H.H. Bailey and J.J. Gipp (1995) Transfection of complementary DNAs for the heavy and light subunits of human γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase results in an elevation of intracellular glutathione and resistance to melphalan. Cancer Research, 55, 4771-4775.
6. Z. Tu and M.W. Anders (1998) Expression and characterization of human glutamate-cysteine ligase. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 354, 247-254.
7. O.W. Griffith (1999) Biological and pharmacological regulation of mammalian glutathione synthesis. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 27, 922-935.
8. S.C. Lu (1998) Regulation of hepatic glutathione synthesis. Seminars in Liver Disease, 18, 331-343.
9. S.C. Lu (1999) Regulation of hepatic glutathione synthesis: Current concepts and controversies. FASEB Journal, 13, 1169-1183.
10. O.W. Griffith and R.T. Mulcahy (1999) The enzymes of glutathione biosynthesis: γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase. In Advances in Enzymology and Related Areas of Molecular Biology, Vol. 73, pp. 209-267.
11. S.C. Lu, J. Kuhlenkamp, C. Garcia-Ruiz and N. Kaplowitz (1991) Hormone-mediated down-regulation of hepatic glutathione synthesis in the rat. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 88, 260-269.
12. W-M. Sun, Z.-Z. Huang and S.C. Lu (1996) Regulation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase by protein phosphorylation. Biochemical Journal, 320, 321-328.
13. T. Ochi (1995) Hydrogen peroxide increases the activity of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase in cultured Chinese hamster V79 cells. Archives in Toxicology, 70, 96-103.
14. E. Sierra-Rivera, M. Dasouki, M.L. Summar, M.R.S. Krishnamani, M. Meredith, P.N. Rao, J.A. Phillips III and M.L. Freeman (1996) Assignment of the human gene (GLCLR) that encodes the regulatory subunit of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase to chromosome 1p21. Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics, 72, 252-254.
15. K. Tsuchiya, R.T. Mulcahy, L.L. Reid, C.M. Disteche and T.J. Kavanagh (1996) Mapping of the glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit gene (GLCLC) to human chromosome 6p12 and mouse chromosome 9D-E and of the regulatory subunit gene (GLCLR) to human chromosome 1p21-p22 and mouse chromosome 3H1-3. Genomics, 30, 630-632.
16. A.C. Walsh, W. Li, D.R. Rosen and D.A. Lawrence (1996) Genetic mapping of GLCLC, the human gene encoding the catalytic subunit of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase, to chromosome band 6p12 and characterization of a polymorphic trinucleotide repeat within its 5′ untranslated region. Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics, 75, 14-16.
17. J.-M. Rozet, S. Gerber, I. Perrault, P. Calvas, E. Souied, S. Chatelin, E. Viegas-Pequignot, D. Molina-Gomez, A. Munnich and J. Kaplan (1998) Structure and refinement of the physical mapping of the γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase regulatory subunit (GLCLR) gene to chromosome 1p22.1 within the critically deleted region of human malignant mesothelioma. Cytogenetics and Cell Genetics, 82, 91-94.
18. J.J. Gipp, C. Chang and R.T. Mulcahy (1992) Cloning and nucleotide sequence of a full-length cDNA for human liver γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 185, 29-35.
19. J.J. Gipp, H.H. Bailey and R.T. Mulcahy (1995) Cloning and sequencing of the cDNA for the light subunit of human liver γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase and relative mRNA levels for heavy and light subunits in human normal tissues. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 206, 584-589.
20. R.T. Mulcahy and J.J. Gipp (1995) Identification of a putative antioxidant response element in the 5′-flanking region of the human γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase heavy subunit gene. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 209, 227-233.
21. K.-S. Yao, A.K. Godwin, S.W. Johnson, R.F. Ozols, P.J. O'Dwyer and T.C. Hamilton (1995) Evidence for altered regulation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase gene expression among cisplatin-sensitive and cisplatin-resistant human ovarian cancer cell lines. Cancer Research, 55, 4367-4374.
22. R.T. Mulcahy, M.A. Wartman, H.H. Bailey and J.J. Gipp (1997) Constitutive and β-naphthoflavone-induced expression of the human γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase is regulated by a distal antioxidant response element/ TRE sequence. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272, 7445-7454.
23. D.C. Galloway, D.G. Blake, A.G. Shepherd and L.I. McLellan (1997) Regulation of human γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase: co-ordinate induction of the catalytic and regulatory subunits in HepG2 cells. Biochemical Journal, 328, 99-104.
24. H.R. Moinova and R.T. Mulcahy (1998) An electrophile responsive element (EpRE) regulates β-naphthoflavone induction of the human γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase regulatory subunit gene. the Journal of Biological Chemistry, 273, 14683-14689.
25. A.-L. Wu and W.S. Moye-Rowley (1994) GSH1, which encodes γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase, is a target gene for yAP-1 transcriptional regulation. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 14, 5832-5839.
26. K.D. Harshman, W.S. Moye-Rowley and C.S. Parker (1988) Transcriptional activation by the SV40 AP-1 recognition element in yeast in mediated by a factor similar to AP-1 that is distinct from GCN4. Cell, 53, 321-330.
27. R.H. Jones, S. Moreno, P. Nurse and N.C. Jones (1988) Expression of the SV40 promoter in fission yeast: Identification and characterization of an AP-1-like factor. Cell, 53, 659-667.
28. N. Schnell and K.-D. Entian (1991) Identification and characterization of a Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene (PAR1) conferring resistance to iron chelators. European Journal of Biochemistry, 200, 487-493.
29. N. Schnell, B. Krems and K.-D. Entian (1992) The PAR1 (YAP1/SNQ3) gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a c-jun homologue, is involved in oxygen metabolism. Current Genetics, 21, 269-273.
30. D. Hirata, K. Yano and T. Miyakawa (1994) Stress-induced transcriptional activation mediated by YAP1 and YAP2 genes that encode the Jun family of transcriptional activators in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Molecular and General Genetics, 242, 250-256.
31. D.W. Stephen, S.L. Rivers and D.J. Jamieson (1995) The role of the YAP1 and YAP2 genes in the regulation of adaptive oxidative stress responses of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Molecular Microbiology, 16, 415-423.
32. S. Kuge, N. Jones and A. Nomoto (1997) Regulation of yAP-1 nuclear localization in response to oxidative stress. The EMBO Journal, 16, 1710-1720.
33. 2 and diamide. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272, 7908-7914.
34. S. Kuge, T. Toda, N. Iizuka and A. Nomoto (1998) Crm1 (Xpol) dependent nuclear export of the budding yeast transcription factor yAP-1 is sensitive to oxidative stress. Genes to Cells, 3, 521-532.
35. W.M. Toone, S. Kuge, M. Samuels, B.A. Morgan, T. Toda and N. Jones (1998) Regulation of the fission yeast transcription factor Pap1 by oxidative stress: Requirement for the nuclear export factor Crm1 (Exportin) and the stress-activated MAP kinase Sty1/Spc1. Genes and Development, 12, 1453-1463.
36. C.-S. Huang, M.E. Anderson and A. Meister (1993) Amino acid sequence and function of the light subunit of rat kidney γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 268, 20 578-20 583.
37. K.R. Sekhar, M.J. Meredith, L.D. Kerr, S.R. Soltaninassab, D.R. Spitz, Z.-Q. Xu and M.L. Freeman (1997) Expression of glutathione and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase mRNA is Jun dependent. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 234, 588-593.
38. A.C. Wild, J.J. Gipp and R.T. Mulcahy (1998) Overlapping antioxidant response element and PMA response element sequences mediate basal and γ-naphthoflavone-induced expression of the human γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase catalytic subunit gene. Biochemical Journal, 332, 373-381.
39. D.C. Galloway and L.I. McLellan (1998) Inducible expression of the γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase light subunit by t-butylhydroquinone in HepG2 cells is not dependent on an antioxidant-reponsive element. Biochemical Journal, 336, 535-539.
40. M. Olive, D. Krylov, D.R. Echlin, K. Gardner, E. Taparowsky and C. Vinson (1997) A dominant negative to Activation Protein-1 (AP1) that abolishes DNA binding and inhibits oncogenesis. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272, 18 586-18 594.
41. A.C. Wild, H.R. Moinova and R.T. Mulcahy (1999) Regulation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase subunit gene expression by Nrf2. The Journal of Biological Chemistry (in press).
42. C. Gunes, R. Heuchel, O. Georgiev, K.-H. Muller, P. Lichtlen, H. Bluthmann, S. Marino, A. Aguzzi and W. Schaffner (1998) Embryonic lethality and liver degeneration in mice lacking the metal-responsive transcriptional activator MTF-1. The EMBO Journal, 17, 2846-2854.
43. X. Yin, H. Wu, Y. Chen and Y.J. Kang (1998) Induction of antioxidants by adriamycin in mouse heart. Biochemical Pharmacology, 56, 87-93.
44. A. Gomi, S. Shinoda, T. Masuzawa, T. Ishikawa and M.T. Kuo (1997) Transient induction of the MRP/GS-X pump and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase by 1-(4-amino-2-methyl-5-pyrimidinyl)methyl-3-(2-chloroethyl)-3-nitro-sourea in human glioma cells. Cancer Research, 57, 5292-5299.
45. A. Gomi, T. Masuzawa, T. Ishikawa and M.T. Kuo (1997) Posttranscriptional regulation of MRP/GS-X pump and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase expression by 1-(4-amino-2-methyl-5-pyrimidinyl)methyl-3-(2-chloroethyl)-3-nitro-sourea and by cycloheximide in human glioma cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 239, 51-56.
46. T.S. Lapperre, L.A. Jimenez, F. Antonicelli, E.M. Drost, P.S. Hiemstra, J. Stolk, W. MacNee and I. Rahman (1999) Apocynin increases glutathione synthesis and activates AP-1 in alveolar epithelial cells. FEBS Letters, 443, 235-239.
47. K.-S. Yao, A.K. Godwin, R.F. Ozols, T.C. Hamilton and P.J. O'Dwyer (1993) Variable baseline γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase messenger RNA expression in peripheral mononuclear cells of cancer patients, and its induction by buthionine sulfoximine treatment. Cancer Research, 53, 3662-3666.
48. A.C. Walsh, S.G. Michaud, J.A. Malossi and D.A. Lawrence (1995) Glutathione depletion in human T lymphocytes: Analysis of activation-associated gene expression and the stress response. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 133, 249-261.
49. F. Ali-Osman, G. Antoun, H. Wang, S. Rajagopal and E. Gagucas (1996) Buthionine sulfoximine induction of γ-L-glutamyl-L-cysteine synthetase gene expression, kinetics of glutathione depletion and resynthesis, and modulation of carmustine-induced DNA-DNA cross-linking and cytotoxicity in human glioma cells. Molecular Pharmacology, 49, 1012-1020.
50. J. Cai, Z.-Z. Huang and S.C. Lu (1997) Differential regulation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase heavy and light subunit gene expression. Biochemical Journal, 326, 67-172.
51. L. Tian, M.M. Shi and H.J. Forman (1997) Increased transcription of the regulatory subunit of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase in rat lung epithelial L2 cells exposed to oxidative stress or glutathione depletion. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 342, 126-133.
52. K.I. Borroz, T.M. Buetler and D.L. Eaton (1994) Modulation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase large subunit mRNA expression by butylated hydroxyanisole. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 126, 150-155.
53. T.M. Buetler, E.P. Gallagher, C. Wang, D.L. Stahl, J.D. Hayes and D.L. Eaton (1995) Induction of phase I and phase II drug-metabolizing enzyme mRNA, protein, and activity by BHA, ethoxyquin, and oltipraz. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 135, 45-57.
54. J.J. Gipp, M. Wartman, H.H. Bailey and R.T. Mulcahy (1998) Differential expression and regulation of the catalytic and regulatory subunits of the γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase genes in response to xenobiotics. The Toxicologist, 42, abstract 1776.
55. Z. Tu and M.W. Anders (1998) Up-regulation of glutamate-cysteine ligase gene expression by butylated hydroxytoluene is mediated by transcription factor AP-1. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 244, 801-805.
56. I. Rahman, C.A.D. Smith, M.F. Lawson, D.J. Harrison and W. MacNee (1996) Induction of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase by cigarette smoke is associated with AP-1 in human alveolar epithelial cells. FEBS Letters, 396, 21-25.
57. E.P. Gallagher, T.M. Buetler, P.L. Stapleton, C. Wang, D.L. Stahl and D.L. Eaton (1995) The effects of diquat and ciprofibrate on mRNA expression and catalytic activities of hepatic xenobiotic metabolizing and antioxidant enzymes in rat liver. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 134, 81-91.
58. T. Kondo, K. Yoshida, Y. Urata, S. Goto, S. Gasa and N. Taniguchi (1993) γ-Glutamylcysteine synthetase and active transport of glutathione S-conjugate are responsive to heat shock in K562 erythroid cells. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 268, 20 366-20 372.
59. K.R. Sekhar, M. Long, J. Long, Z.-Q. Xu, M.L. Summar and M.L. Freeman (1997) Alteration of transcriptional and post-transcriptional expression of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase by diethyl maleate. Radiation Research, 147, 592-597.
60. M.M. Shi, T. Iwamoto and H.J. Forman (1994) γ-Glutamylcysteine synthetase and GSH increase in quinone-induced oxidative stress in BPAEC. American Journal of Physiology, 267, L414-L421.
61. M.M. Shi, A. Kugelman, T. Iwamoto, L. Tian and H.J. Forman (1994) Quinone-induced oxidative stress elevates glutathione and induces γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase activity in rat lung epithelial L2 cells. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 269, 26 512-26 517.
62. H. Shen, S. Ranganathan, S. Kuzmich and K.D. Tew (1995) Influence of ethacrynic acid on glutathione S-transferase π transcript and protein half-lives in human colon cancer cells. Biochemical Pharmacology, 50, 1233-1238.
63. I. Rahman, A. Bel, B. Mulier, M.F. Lawson, D.J. Harrison, W. MacNee and C.A.D. Smith (1996) Transcriptional regulation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase-heavy subunit by oxidants in human alveolar epithelial cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 229, 832-837.
64. J.P. Thomas, J.J. Gipp and R.T. Mulcahy (1998) Induction of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase in cells exposed to hydrogen peroxide. The Toxicologist, 42, abstract 1353.
65. E. Iwata-Ichikawa, Y. Kondo, I. Miyazaki, M. Asanuma and N. Ogawa (1999) Glial cells protect neurons against oxidative stress via transcriptional up-regulation of the glutathione synthesis. Journal of Neurochemistry, 72, 2334-2344.
66. R.-M. Liu, L. Gao, J. Choi and H.J. Forman (1998) γ-Glutamylcysteine synthetase: mRNA stabilization and independent subunit transcription by 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal. American Journal of Physiology, 275, L861-L869.
67. T. Shimizu, M. Iwanaga, A. Yasunaga, Y. Urata, S. Goto, S. Shibata and T. Kondo (1998) Protective role of glutathione synthesis on radiation-induced DNA damage in rabbit brain. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, 18, 299-310.
68. S. Kojima, O. Matsuki, T. Nomura, A. Kubodera, Y. Honda, S. Honda, H. Tanooka, H. Wakasugi and K. Yamaoka (1998) Induction of mRNAs for glutathione synthesis-related proteins in mouse liver by low doses of γ-rays. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1381, 312-318.
69. A. Morales, M. Miranda, A. Sancho-Reyes, A. Colell, A. Biete and J.C. Fernanadez-Checa (1998) Transcriptional regulation of the heavy subunit chain of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase by ionizing radiation. FEBS Letters, 427, 15-20.
70. S. Kojima, O. Matsuki, T. Nomura, N. Shimura, A. Kobodera, K. Yamaoka, H. Tanooka, H. Wakasugi, Y. Honda, S. Honda and T. Sasaki (1998) Localization of glutathione and induction of glutathione synthesis-related proteins in mouse brain by low doses of γ-rays. Brain Research, 808, 262-269.
71. M. Iwanaga, K. Mori, T. Iida, Y. Urata, T. Matsuo, A. Yasunaga, S. Shibata and T. Kondo (1998) Nuclear factor kappa B dependent induction of gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase by ionizing radiation in T98G human glioblastoma cells. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 24, 1256-1268.
72. J.S. Woods, H.A. David and R.P. Baer (1992) Enhancement of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase mRNA in rat kidney by methylmercury. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 296, 350-353.
73. J.S. Woods and M.E. Ellis (1995) Up-regulation of glutathione synthesis in rat kidney by methylmercury Biochemical Pharmacology, 50, 1719-1724.
74. S. Li, S.A. Thompson and J.S. Woods (1996) Localization of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase mRNA expression in mouse brain following methylmercury treatment using reverse transcription in situ PCR amplification. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 140, 180-187.
75. S. Li, S.A. Thompson, T.J. Kavanagh and J.S. Woods (1996) Localization by in situ hybridization of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase mRNA expression in rat kidney following acute methylmercury treatment. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 141, 59-67.
76. Y.C. Ou, S.A. Thompson, R.A. Ponce, J. Schroeder, T.J. Kavanagh and E.M. Faustman (1999) Induction of cell cycle regulatory gene p21 (Waf1, Cip1) following methylmercury exposure in vitro and in vivo. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 157, 203-212.
77. P.C. Kuo, K.Y. Abe and R.A. Schroeder (1996) Interleukin-1-induced nitric oxide production modulates glutathione synthesis in cultured rat hepatocytes. American Journal of Physiology, 271, C851-C862.
78. D. Moellering, J. McAndrew, R.P. Patel, T. Cornwell, T. Lincoln, X. Cao, J.L. Messina, H.J. Forman, H. Jo and V. Darley-Usmar (1998) Nitric oxide-dependent induction of glutathione synthesis through increased expression of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 358, 74-82.
79. P.J. O'Dwyer, C.E. Szarka, K.-S. Yao, T.C. Halbherr, G.R. Pfeiffer, F. Green, J.M. Gallo, J Brennan, H. Frucht, E.B. Goosenberg, T.C. Hamilton, S. Litwin, A.M. Balshem, P.F. Engstrom and M.L. Clapper (1996) Modulation of gene expression in subjects at risk for colorectal cancer by the chemopreventive dithiolethione oltipraz. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 98, 1210-1217.
80. S. Cho, M. Hazama, Y. Urata, S. Goto, S. Horiuchi, K. Sumikawa and T. Kondo (1999) Protective role of glutathione synthesis in response to oxidized low density lipoprotein in human vascular endothelial cells. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 26, 589-602.
81. K. Ohno and M. Hirata (1990) Induction of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase by prostaglandin A2 in L-1210 cells. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 168, 551-557.
82. A.C. Wild and R.T. Mulcahy (1999) Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate up-regulates the expression of the genes encoding the catalytic and regulatory subunit of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase and increases intracellular glutathione levels. Biochemical Journal, 338, 659-665.
83. R.-M. Liu, H. Hu, T.W. Robison and H.J. Forman (1996) Differential enhancement of γ-glutamyl transpeptidase and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase by tert-butylhydroquinone in rat lung epithelial L2 cells. American Journal of Respiratory and Cell Molecular Biology, 14, 186-191.
84. Y. Yamane, M. Furuichi, R. Song, N.T. Van, R.T. Mulcahy, T. Ishikawa and M.T. Kuo (1998) Expression of multidrug resistance protein/GS-X pump and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase genes is regulated by oxidative stress. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 273, 31 075-31 085.
85. I. Rahman, F. Antonicelli and W. MacNee (1999) Molecular mechanisms of the regulation of glutathione synthesis by tumor necrosis factor-α and dexamethasone in human alveolar epithelial cells. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 274, 5088-5096.
86. J. Cai, W.-M. Sun and S.C. Lu (1995) Hormonal and cell density regulation of hepatic γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase gene expression. Molecular Pharmacology, 48, 212-218.
87. Y. Urata, H. Yamamoto, S. Goto, H. Tsushima, S. Akazawa, S. Yamashita, S. Nagataki and T. Kondo (1996) Long exposure to high glucose concentration impairs the responsive expression of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase by interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α in mouse endothelial cells. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 271, 15 146-15 152.
88. 1 is a potent inhibitor of glutathione synthesis in the lung epithelial cell line A549: Transcriptional effect on the GSH rate-limiting enzyme γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase. American Journal of Respiratory and Cell Molecular Biology, 17, 599-607.
89. A. Morales, C. Garcia-Ruiz, M. Miranda, M. Mari, A. Colell, E. Ardite, J.C. Fernandez-Checa (1997) Tumor necrosis factor increases hepatocellular glutathione by transcriptional regulation of the heavy subunit chain of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272, 30 371-30 379.
90. S.C. Lu, Z.-Z. Huang, J.M. Yang and H. Tsukamoto (1999) Effect of ethanol and high-fat feeding on hepatic γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase subunit expression in the rat. Hepatology, 30, 209-214.
91. T. Ishikawa, J.-J. Bao, Y. Yamane, K. Akimaru, K. Frindrich, C.D. Wright and M.T. Kuo (1996) Coordinated induction of MRP/GS-X pump and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase by heavy metals in human leukemic cells. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 271, 14 981-14 988.
92. J.J. Maher, J.M. Saito, B.A. Neuschwander-Tetri (1997) Glutathione regulation in rat hepatic Stellate cells. Biochemical Pharmacology, 53, 637-641.
93. P.J. O'Dwyer, K.-S. Yao, P. Ford, A.K. Godwin and M. Clayton (1994) Effects of hypoxia on detoxicating enzyme activity and expression in HT29 colon adenocarcinoma cells. Cancer Research, 54, 3082-3087.
94. T.M. Buetler (1998) Identification of glutathione S-transferase isozymes and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase as negative acute-phase proteins in rat liver. Hepatology 28, 1551-1560.
95. D.L. Bella, L.L. Hirschberger, Y. Hosokawa and M.H. Stipanuk (1999) Mechanisms involved in the regulation of key enzymes of cysteine metabolism in rat liver in vivo. American Journal of Physiology, 276, E326-E335.
96. Z.-Z. Huang, H. Li, J. Cai, J. Kuhlenkamp, N. Kaplowitz and S.C. Lu (1998) Changes in glutathione homeostasis during liver regeneration in the rat. Hepatology, 27, 147-153.
97. A. Yokomizo, K. Kohno, M. Wada, M. Ono, C.S. Morrow, K.H. Cowan and M. Kuwano (1995) Markedly decreased expression of glutathione S-transferase π gene in human cancer cell lines resistant to buthionine sulfoximine, an inhibitor of cellular glutathione synthesis. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270, 19 451-19 457.
98. T. Tanaka, T. Uchiumi, K. Kohno, A. Tomonari, K. Nishio, N. Saijo, T. Kondo and M. Kuwano (1998) Glutathione homeostasis in human hepatic cells: Overexpression of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase gene in cell lines resistant to buthionine sulfoximine, an inhibitor of glutathione synthesis. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 246, 398-403.
99. T. Tanaka, T. Uchiumi, M. Nomoto, K. Kohno, T. Kondo, K. Nishio, N. Saijo and M. Kuwano (1999) Cellular balance of glutathione levels through the expression of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase and glutathione thiol transferase genes in human hepatic cells resistant to a glutathione poison. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1427, 367-377.
100. Y. Chen, J.T. Saari and Y.J. Kang (1995) Expression of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase in the liver of copper-deficient rats. Proceedings for the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 210, 102-106.
101. A.K. Godwin, A. Meister, P.J. O'Dwyer, C.S. Huang, T.C. Hamilton and M.E. Anderson (1992) High resistance to cisplatin in human ovarian cancer cell lines is associated with marked increase of glutathione synthesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 89, 3070-3074.
102. H.H. Bailey, J.J. Gipp, M. Ripple, G. Wilding and R.T. Mulcahy (1992) Increase in γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase activity and steady-state messenger RNA levels in melphalan-resistant DU-145 human prostate carcinoma cells expressing elevated glutathione levels. Cancer Research, 52, 5115-5118.
103. R.T. Mulcahy, S. Untawale and J.J. Gipp (1994) Transcriptional up-regulation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase gene in melphalan-resistant human prostate carcinoma cells. Molecular Pharmacology, 46, 909-914.
104. R.T. Mulcahy, H.H. Bailey and J.J. Gipp (1994) Up-regulation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase activity in melphalan-resistant human multiple myeloma cells expressing increased glutathione levels. Cancer Chemotherapy and Pharmacology, 34, 67-71.
105. E.L. Hatcher, Y. Chen and Y.J. Kang (1995) Cadmium resistance in A549 cells correlates with elevated glutathione content but not antioxidant enzymatic activities. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 19, 805-812.
106. M.T. Kuo, J.-J. Bao, S.A. Curley, M. Ikeguchi, D.A. Johnston and T. Ishikawa (1996) Frequent coordinated overexpression of the MRP/GS-X pump and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase genes in human colorectal cancers. Cancer Research, 56, 3642-3644.
107. S. Kotoh, S. Naito, A. Yokomizo, K. Kohno, M. Kuwano and J. Kumazawa (1997) Enhanced expression of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase and glutathione S-transferase genes in cisplatin-resistant bladder cancer cells with multidrug resistance phenotype. The Journal of Urology, 157, 1054-1058.
108. T. Oguri, Y. Fujiwara, T. Isobe, O. Katoh, H. Watanabe and M. Yamakido (1998) Expression of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γ-GCS) and multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP), but not human canalicular multispecific organic anion transporter (cMOAT), genes correlates with exposure of human lung cancers to platinum drugs. British Journal of Cancer, 77, 1089-1096.
109. B. Ogretmen, H.R. Bahadori, M.D. McCauley, A. Boylan, M.R. Green and A.R. Safa (1998) Co-ordinated overexpression of the MRP and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase genes, but not MDR1, correlates with doxorubicin resistance in human malignant mesothelioma cell lines. International Journal of Cancer, 75, 757-761.
110. K.D. Tew, M. O'Brien, N.M. Laing and H. Shen (1998) Coordinate changes in expression of protective genes in drug-resistant cells. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 111/112, 199-211.
111. S.C. Lu, J. Cai, J. Kuhlenkamp, W.-M. Sun, H. Takikawa, O. Takenaka, T. Horie, J. Yi, N. Kaplowitz (1996) Alterations in glutathione homeostasis in mutant Eisai Hyperbilirubinemic rats. Hepatology, 24, 253-258.
112. T. Prestera, Y. Zhang, S.R. Spencer, C.A. Wilczak and P. Talalay (1993) The electrophile counterattack response: Protection against neoplasia and toxicity. Advances in Enzyme Regulation, 33, 281-296.
113. P. Talalay, J.W. Fahey, W.D. Holtzclaw, T. Prestera and Y. Zhang (1995) Chemoprotection against cancer by Phase 2 enzyme induction. Toxicology Letters, 82/83, 173-179.
114. P. Talalay, M.J. DeLong and H. Prochaska (1988) Identification of a common chemical signal regulating the induction of enzymes that protect against chemical carcinogenesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 85, 8261-8265.
115. T. Prestera, W.D. Holtzclaw, Y. Zhang and P. Talalay (1993) Chemical and molecular regulation of enzymes that detoxify carcinogens. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 90, 2965-2969.
116. 12-prostaglandin J2 and its inhibition by intracellular glutathione. Biochemical Pharmacology, 45, 2457-2464.
117. T.H. Rushmore and C.B. Pickett (1990) Transcriptional regulation of rat glutathione S-transferase Ya subunit gene. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 265, 14648-14653.
118. R.S. Friling, A. Bensimon, Y. Tichauer and V. Daniel (1990) Xenobiotic-inducible expression of murine glutathione S-transferase Ya subunit gene is controlled by an electrophile-responsive element. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 87, 6258-6262.
119. A.K. Jaiswal (1991) Human NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (NQO1) gene structure and induction by dioxin. Biochemistry, 30, 10 647-10 653.
120. R.-M. Liu, V. Vasiliou, H. Zhu, J.-L. Duh, M.W. Tabor, A. Puga, D.W. Nebert, M. Sainsbury and H.G. Shertzer (1994) Regulation of [Ah] gene battery enzymes and glutathione levels by 5,10-dihydroindeno [1,2-b]indole in mouse hepatoma cell lines. Carcinogenesis, 15, 2347-2352.
121. I. Rahman, C.A.D. Smith, F. Antonicelli and W. MacNee (1998) Characterisation of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase-heavy subunit promoter: A critical role for AP-1. FEBS Letters, 427, 129-133.
122. T.H. Rushmore, M.R. Morton and C.B. Pickett (1991) The antioxidant responsive element. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 266, 11 632-11 639.
123. L.V. Favreau and C.B. Pickett (1995) The rat quinone reductase antioxidant response element. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270, 24 468-24 474.
124. W.W. Wasserman and W.E. Fahl (1997) Functional antioxidant responsive elements. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 94, 5361-5366.
125. Promega Corporation (1994) pGL3 Luciferase Reporter Vectors Technical Manual. Part number TM033.
126. Promega Corporation (1995) pCAT®3 Reporter Vectors Technical Manual. Part number TM036.
127. A.K. Jaiswal (1994) Antioxidant response element. Biochemical Pharmacology, 48, 439-444.
128. Y. Li and A.K. Jaiswal (1992) Regulation of human NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase gene The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 267, 15 097-15 104.
129. Y. Li and A.K. Jaiswal (1992) Identification of JunB as third member in human antioxidant response element-nuclear proteins complex. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 188, 992-996.
130. R.S. Friling, S. Bergelson and V. Daniel (1992) Two adjacent AP-1-like binding sites form the electrophile-responsive element of the murine glutathione S-transferase Ya subunit gene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 89, 668-672.
131. S. Bergelson, R. Pinkus and V. Daniel (1994) Induction of AP-1 (Fos/Jun) by chemical agents mediates activation of glutathione S-transferase and quinone reductase gene expression. Oncogene, 9, 565-571.
132. T. Xie, M. Belinsky, Y. Xu and A.K. Jaiswal (1995) ARE-and TRE-mediated regulation of gene expression. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270, 6894-6900.
133. 1 gene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 93, 14 960-14 965.
134. R. Venugopal and A.K. Jaiswal (1998) Nrf2 and Nrf1 in association with Jun proteins regulate antioxidant response element-mediated expression and coordinated induction of genes encoding detoxifying enzymes. Oncogene, 17, 3145-3156.
135. H. Motohashi, J.A. Shavit, K. Igarashi, M. Yamamoto and J.D. Engel (1997) The world according to Maf. Nucleic Acids Research, 25, 2953-2959.
136. K. Itoh, T. Chiba, S. Takahashi, T. Ishii, K. Igarashi, Y. Katoh, T. Oyake, N. Hayashi, K. Satoh, I. Hatayama, M. Yamamoto and Y. Nabeshima (1997) An Nrf2/small Maf heterodimer mediates the induction of Phase II detoxifying enzymes through antioxidant response elements. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 236, 313-322.
137. K. Kataoka, K. Igarashi, K. Itoh, K.T. Fujiwara, M. Noda, M. Yamamoto and M. Nishizawa (1995) Small Maf proteins heterodimerize with Fos and may act as competitive repressers of the NF-E2 transcription factor. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 15, 2180-2190.
138. K. Itoh, K. Igarashi, N. Hayashi, M. Nishizawa and M. Yamamoto (1995) Cloning and characterization of a novel erythroid cell-derived CNC family transcription factor heterodimerizing with the small Maf family proteins. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 15, 4184-4193.
139. T. Toki, J. Itoh, J. Kitazawa, K. Arai, K. Hatakeyama, J. Akasaka, K. Igarashi, N. Nomura, M. Yokoyama, M. Yamamoto and E. Ito (1997) Human small Maf proteins form heterodimers with CNC family transcription factors and recognize the NF-E2 motif. Oncogene, 14, 1901-1910.
140. M.G. Marini, K. Chan, L. Casula, Y.W. Kan, A. Cao and P. Moi (1997) hMaf, a small human transcription factor that heterodimerizes specifically with Nrf1 and Nrf2. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272, 16 490-16 497.
141. T.K. Kerppola and T. Curran (1994) A conserved region adjacent to the basic domain is required for recognition of an extended DNA binding site by Maf/Nr1 family proteins. Oncogene, 9, 3149-3158.
142. H.R. Moinova and R.T. Mulcahy (1999) Up-regulation of human γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase regulatory subunit gene involves binding of Nrf2 to an electrophile response element (EpRE). Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 261, 661-668.
143. K.J. Kotkow and S.H. Orkin (1995) Dependence of globin gene expression in mouse erythroleukemia cells on the NF-E2 heterodimer. Molecular and Cellular Biology, 15, 4640-4647.
144. H.G. Shertzer, V. Vasiliou, R.-M. Liu, M.W. Tabor and D.W. Nebert (1995) Enzyme induction by L-buthionine sulfoximine in cultured mouse hepatoma cells. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 8, 431-436.
145. K. Itoh, N. Wakabayashi, Y. Katoh, T. Ishii, K. Igarashi, J.D. Engel and M. Yamamoto (1999) Keap1 represses nuclear activation of antioxidant response elements by Nrf2 through binding to the ammo-terminal Neh2 domain. Genes and Development, 13, 76-86.
146. D.R. Crawford, K.P. Leahy, Y. Wang, G.P. Schools, J.C. Kochheiser and K.J.A. Davies (1996) Oxidative stress induces the levels of a mafG homolog in hamster HA-1 cells. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 21, 521-525.
147. J. Wilkinson, V. Radjendirane, G.R. Pfeiffer, A.K. Jaiswal and M.L. Clapper (1998) Disruption of c-Fos leads to increased expression of NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductasel and glutathione S-transferase. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 253, 855-858.
148. F. Rosl, B.C. Das, M. Lengert, K. Geletneky and H. zur Hausen (1997) Antioxidant-induced changes of the AP-1 transcription complex are paralleled by a selective suppression of human papillomavirus transcription. Journal of Virology, 71, 362-370.