The role of photoreceptors in the control of refractive state

Progress in Retinal and Eye Research

Volumn 19, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 421-457

  Crewther, David P ^a  

^a LA TROBE UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

2 AMINO 4 PHOSPHONOBUTYRIC ACID; 2,3 PIPERIDINEDICARBOXYLIC ACID; ATROPINE; EXCITOTOXIN; ION CHANNEL; KAINIC ACID; MUSCARINIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID; NEUROTRANSMITTER; OXIDOPAMINE; PIRENZEPINE; PROTEIN C FOS; QUISQUALIC ACID; TETRODOTOXIN;

ADAPTATION; ANATOMY; BIOMETRY; CHICKEN; CHOROID; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; ELECTRORETINOGRAM; EYE; EYE REFRACTION; HUMAN; ION TRANSPORT; LYMPH VESSEL; MAMMAL; MODEL; MUELLER CELL; MYOPIA; NONHUMAN; PHOTORECEPTOR; PIGMENT EPITHELIUM; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REFRACTION ERROR; RESEARCH; RETINA; RETINA AMACRINE CELL; RETINA BLOOD FLOW; RETINA CONE; RETINA INJURY; RETINA ROD; REVIEW; SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY; SCLERA; ULTRASOUND; VITREOUS BODY;

ANIMALS; CHOROID; EYE; HUMANS; HYPEROPIA; MYOPIA; PHOTORECEPTORS, VERTEBRATE; REFRACTION, OCULAR; RETINA; SCLERA;

EID: 0033994229     PISSN: 13509462     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1350-9462(00)00004-5     Document Type: Review

References (172)

1. Amato A., Barbour B., Szatkowski M., Attwell D. Counter-transport of potassium by the glutamate uptake carrier in glial cells isolated from the tiger salamander retina. J. Physiol. 479:1994;371-380.
2. Anderson D.H., Williams D.S., Neitz J. Tunicamycin induced degeneration in cone photoreceptors. Vis. Neurosci. 1:1988;153-158.
3. Andison M.E., Sivak J.G., Bird D.M. The refractive development of the eye of the American kestrel (Falco sparverius): a new avian model. J. Comp. Physiol. [A]. 170:1992;565-574.
4. Bailey J.E., Heath G.G. Flicker effects of receptor directional sensitivity. Am. J. Optom. Physiol. Opt. 55:1978;807-812.
5. Barrington M., Sattayasai J., Zappia J., Ehrlich D. Excitatory amino acids interfere with normal eye growth in posthatch chick. Curr. Eye Res. 8:1989;781-792.
6. Basinger S., Hoffman R., Matthes M. Photoreceptor shedding is initiated by light in the frog retina. Science. 194:1976;1074-1076.
7. Baylor D. Transduction in retinal photoreceptor cells. Soc. Gen. Physiol. Ser. 47:1992;151-174.
8. Beresford J., Crewther S., Crewther D. Anatomical correlates of experimentally induced myopia. Australia New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology. 26:(Suppl.):1998;84-87.
9. Beresford, J. A. (2000) Comparison of refractive state and circumferential morphology of retina, choroid and sclera in chick models of experimentally induced ametropia. Optometry and Vision Science, in press.
10. Boelen M., Megaw P., Crewther S., Morgan I. Dopamine does not encode for the sign of defocus. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 40:1999;S963.
11. Botchkin L.M., Matthews G. Chloride current activated by swelling in retinal pigment epithelium cells. Am. J. Physiol. 265:1993;C1037-C1045.
12. Bryant M.R., Kampmeier J., Er H., Kasetsuwan N., Sanchez-DiMartino D., Shah S.S., McDonnell P.J. PRK-induced anisometropia in the rabbit as a model of myopia. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 237:1999;161-165.
13. Christensen A.M., Wallman J. Evidence that increased scleral growth underlies visual deprivation myopia in chicks. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 32:1991;2143-2150.
14. Cottriall C.L., McBrien N.A. The M1 muscarinic antagonist pirenzepine reduces myopia and eye enlargement in the tree shrew. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 37:1996;1368-1379.
15. Crewther D.P., Crewther S.G. Pharmacological modification of eye growth in normally reared and visually deprived chicks. Curr. Eye Res. 9:1990;733-740.
16. Crewther D.P., Crewther S.G., Xie R.H. The interaction between the On and Off responses to light and ocular growth in chicks. Proceedings of the Australian Neuroscience Society. 3:1992;94.
17. Crewther D.P., Crewther S.G., Xie R.Z. Changes in eye growth produced by drugs which affect retinal ON or OFF responses to light. J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 12:1996;193-208.
18. Crewther S.G., Crewther D.P. Effects of removal of ON and OFF response on lens-induced refractive error. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 40:1999;4467. Abstract.
19. Crewther S.G., Nathan J., Kiely P.M., Brennan N.A., Crewther D.P. The effects of defocussing contact lenses on refraction of cynomolgus monkeys. Clinical Vision Research. 3:1988;221-228.
20. Currie J.R., Hollyfield J.G., Rayborn M.E. Rod outer segments elongate in constant light; darkness is required for normal shedding. Vision Research. 19:1978;995-1003.
21. Curtin B.J. The Myopias. Basic Science and Clinical Management. 1985;Harper and Row, Philadelphia.
22. Cuthbertson S., White J., Fitzgerald M.E., Shih Y.F., Reiner A. Distribution within the choroid of cholinergic nerve fibers from the ciliary ganglion in pigeons. Vision Research. 36:1996;775-786.
23. David T., Smye S., James T., Dabbs T. Time-dependent stress and displacement of the eye wall tissue of the human eye. Med. Eng. Phys. 19:1997;131-139.
24. Diether S., Schaeffel F. Local changes in eye growth induced by imposed local refractive error despite active accommodation. Vision Research. 37:1997;659-668.
25. Diether S., Schaeffel F. Long-term changes in retinal contrast sensitivity in chicks from frosted occluders and drugs: relations to myopia? Vision Research. 39:1999;2499-2510.
26. Dong C.J., McReynolds J.S. Comparison of the effects of flickering and steady light on dopamine release and horizontal cell coupling in the mudpuppy retina. J. Neurophysiol. 67:1992;364-372.
27. Dreher Z., Distler C., Dreher B. Vitread proliferation of filamentous processes in avian Müller cells and its putative functional correlates. Journal Of Comparative Neurology. 350:1994;96-108.
28. Dreher Z.S., Robinson S.R., Distler C. Müller cells in vascular and avascular retinae: a survey of seven mammals. Journal of Comparative Neurology. 323:1992;59-80.
29. Dubocovich M.L. Melatonin is a potent modulator of dopamine release in the retina. Nature. 306:1983;782-784.
30. 3H]-dopamine released by different frequencies of stimulation from rabbit retina. Br. J. Pharmacol. 88:1986;51-61.
31. Dvorak D.R., Morgan I.G. Intravitreal kainic acid permanently eliminates OFF pathways from chick retina. Neurosci. Lett. 36:1983;249.
32. Edelman J.L., Miller S.S. Epinephrine stimulates fluid absorption across bovine retinal pigment epithelium. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 32:1991;3033-3040.
33. Ehrlich D., Sattayasai J., Zappia J., Barrington M. Effects of selective neurotoxins on eye growth in the young chick. Ciba Found. Symp. 155:1990;63-84.
34. Enoch J.M. Wave-guide modes in retinal receptors. Science. 133:1961;1353-1354.
35. Enoch J.M., Lakshminarayanan V. Retinal fibre optics. Cronly-Dillon J.R. Vision and Visual Dysfunction. Visual Optics and Instrumentation. Vol. 1:1991;280-309 CRC Press, Boca Raton.
36. Feldkaemper M., Diether S., Kleine G., Schaeffel F. Interactions of spatial and luminance information in the retina of chickens during myopia development. Exp. Eye Res. 68:1999;105-115.
37. Fincham E.F. The accommodation reflex and its stimulus. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 35:1951;381-393.
38. Fischer A.J., McGuire J.J., Schaeffel F., Stell W.K. Light- and focus-dependent expression of the transcription factor ZENK in the chick retina. Nat. Neurosci. 2:1999;706-712.
39. Fischer A.J., Miethke P., Morgan I.G., Stell W.K. Cholinergic amacrine cells are not required for the progression and atropine-mediated suppression of form-deprivation myopia. Brain Res. 794:1998;48-60.
40. Fitzgerald M.E., Gamlin P.D., Zagvazdin Y., Reiner A. Central neural circuits for the light-mediated reflexive control of choroidal blood flow in the pigeon eye: a laser Doppler study. Vis. Neurosci. 13:1996;655-669.
41. Fitzgerald M.E., Vana B.A., Reiner A. Control of choroidal blood flow by the nucleus of Edinger-Westphal in pigeons: a laser Doppler study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 31:1990;2483-2492.
42. Fliesler S.J., Basinger S.F. Tunicamycin blocks the incorporation of opsin into the rod outer segment membranes. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA. 82:1985;1116-1120.
43. Friedman Z., Hackett S.F., Campochiaro P.A. Human retinal pigment epithelial cells possess muscarinic receptors coupled to calcium mobilization. Brain Res. 446:1988;11-16.
44. o in proximal portion of light-adapted cat retina. Journal of Neurophysiology. 67:1992;1201-1212.
45. Fujikado T., Kawasaki Y., Suzuki A., Ohmi G., Tano Y. Retinal function with lens-induced myopia compared with form-deprivation myopia in chicks. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 235:1997;320-324.
46. Gallemore R.P., Hughes B.A., Miller S.S. Retinal pigment epithelial transport mechanisms and their contributions to the electroretinogram. Progress in Retinal Research. 16:1997;509-566.
47. Gallemore R.P., Li J.D., Govardovskii V.I., Steinberg R.H. Calcium gradients and light-evoked calcium changes outside rods in the intact cat retina. Vis. Neurosci. 11:1994;753-761.
48. Gallemore R.P., Steinberg R.H. Effects of dopamine on the chick retinal pigment epithelium. Membrane potentials and light-evoked responses. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 31:1990;67-80.
49. - conductance in chick retinal pigment epithelium: the light peak and fast oscillation. J. Neurophysiol. 70:1993;1669-1680.
50. Graham B., Judge S.J. The effects of spectacle wear in infancy on eye growth and refractive error in the marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Vision Res. 39:1999;189-206.
51. Greenberger L.M., Besharse J.C. Photoreceptor disc shedding in eye cups. Inhibition by deletion of extracellular divalent cations. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 24:1983;1456-1464.
52. Greenberger L.M., Besharse J.C. Rod photoreceptor disc shedding is massively stimulated by aspartate and other amino acids. ARVO Abstracts. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 25:1984;242.
53. Guo S.S., Sivak J.G., Callender M.G., Diehl-Jones B. Retinal dopamine and lens-induced refractive errors in chicks. Curr. Eye Res. 14:1995;385-389.
54. Heckenlively J., Arden G.B., Adachi-Usami E. Principles and Practice of Clinical Electrophysiology of Vision. 1991;Mosby, St Louis, London.
55. Hendrickson P., Rosenblum W. Accommodation demand and deprivation in kitten ocular development. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 26:1985;343-349.
56. + by the retinal pigment epithelium in frog. J. Neurosci. 6:1986;3197-3204.
57. Ingham C.A., Morgan I.G. Dose-dependent effects of intravitreal kainic acid on specific cell types in chick retina. Neuroscience. 9:1983;165-179.
58. Irving E.L., Callender M.G., Sivak J.G. Inducing myopia, hyperopia, and astigmatism in chicks. Optom. Vis. Sci. 68:1991;364-368.
59. Joseph D.P., Miller S.S. Alpha-1-adrenergic modulation of K and Cl transport in bovine retinal pigment epithelium. Journal of General Physiology. 99:1992;263-290.
60. Junghans B.M., Crewther S.G., Crewther D.P., Liang H., Wareing L., Pirie B. Lymphatics in the chick choroid? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Ophthalmology. 24:1996;47-49.
61. Junghans B.M., Crewther S.G., Crewther D.P., Pirie B. Lymphatic sinusoids exist in chick but not in rabbit choroid. Aust. NZ J. Ophthalmol. 25:1997;S103-S105.
62. Junghans B.M., Crewther S.G., Liang H., Crewther D.P. A role for choroidal lymphatics during recovery from form deprivation myopia? Optom. Vis. Sci. 76:1999;796-803.
63. Junghans B.M., Wadley R.B., Crewther S.G., Crewther D.P. X-ray elemental analysis differentiates blood vessels and lymphatic vessels in the chick choroid. Aust. NZ J. Ophthalmol. 27:1999;244-246.
64. Kandel E.R., Schwartz J.H., Jessell T.M. Principles of Neural Science. 1991;400-419 Prentice-Hall International, London.
65. Kawabata H., Adachi-Usami E. Multifocal electroretinogram in myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 38:1997;2844-2851.
66. Kenyon E., Yu K., La Cour M., Miller S.S. Lactate transport mechanisms at apical and basolateral membranes of bovine retinal pigment epithelium. American Journal of Physiology. 267:1994;C1561-C1573.
67. Kirby A.W., Weiss H. Elongation of kitten and monkey eyes following neonatal lid suture. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 20:(ARVO Suppl.):1979;158.
68. Kirsch M., Wagner H.J. Release pattern of endogenous dopamine in teleost retinae during light adaptation and pharmacological stimulation. Vision Res. 29:1989;147-154.
69. Korte G., Reppucci V., Henkind P. RPE atrophy causes choriocapillary destruction. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 25:1984;1135-1145.
70. Krebs W., Krebs I. Ultrastructural evidence for lymphatic capillaries in the primate choroid. Arch. Ophthalmol. 106:1988;1615-1616.
71. Kroger R.H., Wagner H.J. The eye of the blue acara (Aequidens pulcher, Cichlidae) grows to compensate for defocus due to chromatic aberration. J. Comp. Physiol. [A]. 179:1996;837-842.
72. Kruger P.B., Mathews S., Katz M., Aggarwala K.R., Nowbotsing S. Accommodation without feedback suggests directional signals specify ocular focus. Vision Res. 37:1997;2511-2526.
73. Lakshminarayanan V., Bailey J.E., Enoch J.M. Optics of phakic, pseudophakic, and aphakic eyes: effects on the Stiles-Crawford (SCE I) function. Optometry & Vision Science. 70:1993;404-408.
74. Lamb T.D., Pugh E.N. Jr. G-protein cascades: gain and kinetics. Trends Neurosci. 15:1992;291-298.
75. Laties A.M., Liebman P.A., Campbell C.E. Photoreceptor orientation in the primate eye. Nature. 218:1968;172-173.
76. Lauber J.K. Review: Avian models for experimental myopia. Journal of Ocular Pharmacology. 7:1991;259-276.
77. Lauber J.K., Kinnear A. Eye enlargement in birds induced by dim light. Canad. J. Ophthalmol. 14:1979.
78. Lauber J.K., McGinnis J. Eye lesions in the domestic fowl reared under continuous light. Vision Research. 6:1966;619-626.
79. Lauber J.K., McGinnis J., Boyd J. Influence of miotics, diamox and vision occluders on light-induced buphthalmos in domestic fowl. Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine. 120:1965;572-575.
80. Leech E.M., Cottriall C.L., McBrien N.A. Pirenzepine prevents form deprivation myopia in a dose dependent manner. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 15:1995;351-356.
81. Li J.D., Gallemore R.P., Dmitriev A., Steinberg R.H. Light-dependent hydration of the space surrounding photoreceptors in chick retina. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 35:1994;2700-2711.
82. Li Q., Muragaki Y., Hatamura I., Ueno H., Ooshima A. Stretch-induced collagen synthesis in cultured smooth muscle cells from rabbit aortic media and a possible involvement of angiotension II and transforming growth factor-beta. Journal of Vascular Research. 35:1998;93-103.
83. Liang H., Crewther D.P., Crewther S.G., Barila A.M. A role for photoreceptor outer segments in the induction of deprivation myopia. Vision Research. 35:1995;1217-1225.
84. Liang H., Crewther S., Crewther D., Dickson M., Junghans B. X-ray microanalysis of the chick choroid and retina in experimental myopia. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39:1998;S504.
85. Liang H., Crewther S.G., Crewther D.P., Pirie B. Morphology of the recovery from form deprivation myopia in the chick. Aust. NZ J. Ophthalmol. 24:1996;41-44.
86. Lin H., Kenyon E., Miller S.S. Na-dependent pHi regulatory mechanisms in human pigment epithelium. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 33:1992;3528-3538.
87. Lin H., la Cour M., Andersen M.V., Miller S.S. Proton-lactate cotransport in the apical membrane of frog retinal pigment epithelium. Exp. Eye Res. 59:1994;679-688.
88. Lin T., Grimes P.A., Stone R.A. Expansion of the retinal pigment epithelium in experimental myopia. Vision Research. 33:1993;1881-1885.
89. Marsh-Tootle W.L., Norton T.T. Refractive and structural measures of lid-suture myopia in tree shrew. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 30:1989;2245-2257.
90. Masland R.H. Processing and encoding of visual information in the retina. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 6:1996;467-474.
91. McBrien N.A., Moghaddam H.O., Cottriall C.L., Leech E.M., Cornell L.M. The effects of blockade of retinal cell action potentials on ocular growth, emmetropization and form deprivation myopia in young chicks. Vision Research. 35:1995;1141-1152.
92. McBrien N.A., Moghaddam H.O., New R., Williams L.R. Experimental myopia in a diurnal mammal (Sciurus carolinensis) with no accommodative ability. J. Physiol. (Lond.). 469:1993;427-441.
93. McFadden S., Wallman J. Guinea pig eye growth compensates for spectacle lenses. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 36:(Suppl.):1995;1208.
94. Meyer D.B., May H.C. The topographical distribution of rods and cones in the adult chicken retina. Experimental Eye Research. 17:1973;347-355.
95. Miller S.S., Edelman J.L. Active ion transport pathways in the bovine retinal pigment epithelium. J. Physiol. 424:1990;283-300.
96. Morgan I.G., Boelen M.K. A retinal dark-light switch: a review of the evidence. Vis. Neurosci. 13:1996;399-409.
97. Morris V.B., Shorey C.D. An electron microscope study of types of receptor in the chick retina. Journal of Comparative Neurology. 129:1967;313-340.
98. Nathan J., Crewther S.G., Crewther D.P., Kiely P.M. Effects of retinal image degradation on ocular growth in cats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 25:1984;1300-1306.
99. Nathan J., Kiely P.M., Crewther S.G., Crewther D.P. Disease-associated visual image degradation and spherical refractive errors in children. American Journal of Optometry & Physiological Optics. 62:1985;680-688.
100. Newman E., Reichenbach A. The Müller cell: a functional element of the retina. Trends Neurosci. 19:1996;307-312.
101. Newman E.A. Regulation of potassium levels by Müller cells in the vertebrate retina. Canadian Journal of Physiology. 65:1987;1028-1034.
102. + siphoning. Science. 225:1984;1174-1175.
103. Ni J., Smith E.L. III. Effects of chronic optical defocus on the kitten's refractive status. Vision Research. 29:1989;929-938.
104. Nickla D.L., Wildsoet C., Wallman J. Visual influences on diurnal rhythms in ocular length and choroidal thickness in chick eyes. Experimental Eye Research. 66:1998;163-181.
105. Noller, N. J. (1984) Eye enlargement in the chick following visual deprivation. Melbourne.
106. Norton T.T. Animal models of myopia: learning how vision controls the size of the eye. Institute for Laboratory Animal Research Journal. 40:1999.
107. Norton T.T., Essinger J.A., McBrien N.A. Lid-suture myopia in tree shrews with retinal ganglion cell blockade. Vis. Neurosci. 11:1994;143-153.
108. O'Brien B. A theory of the Stiles and Crawford effect. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 36:1946;506-509.
109. Oishi T., Lauber J.K. Chicks blinded with formoguanamine do not develop lid suture myopia. Curr. Eye Res. 7:1988;69-73.
110. Pask C., Stacey A. Optical properties of retinal photoreceptors and the Campbell effect. Vision Research. 38:1998;953-961.
111. Pickett-Seltner R.L., Sivak J.G., Pasternak J.J. Experimentally induced myopia in chicks: morphmetric and biochemical analysis during the first 14 days after hatching. Vision Research. 28:1988;323-328.
112. Quinn R.H., Miller S.S. Ion transport mechanisms in native human retinal pigment epithelium. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 33:1992;3513-3527.
113. Rada J.A., Thoft R.A., Hassell J.R. Increased aggrecan (cartilage proteoglycan) production in the sclera of myopic chicks. Dev. Biol. 147:1991;303-312.
114. Raviola E., Wiesel T. Neural control of eye growth and experimental myopia in primates. Bock G., Widdows K. Myopia and the Control of Eye Growth. 1990;Wiley, Chichester.
115. Reiner A., Shih Y.F., Fitzgerald M.E. The relationship of choroidal blood flow and accommodation to the control of ocular growth. Vision Research. 35:1995;1227-1245.
116. Richards W. Saccadic suppression. J. Opt. Soc. Am. 59:1969;617-623.
117. Rodieck R.W. The Vertebrate Retina: Principles of Structure and Function. 1973;W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco.
118. Rohrer B., Schaeffel F., Zrenner E. Longitudinal chromatic aberration and emmetropization: results from the chicken eye. J. Physiol. 449:1992;363-376.
119. Schaeffel F., Diether S. The growing eye: an autofocus system that works on very poor images. Vision Research. 39:1999;1585-1589.
120. Schaeffel F., Glasser A., Howland H.C. Accommodation, refractive error and eye growth in chickens. Vision Research. 28:1988;639-657.
121. Schaeffel F., Hagel G., Bartmann M., Kohler K., Zrenner E. 6-Hydroxy dopamine does not affect lens-induced refractive errors but suppresses deprivation myopia. Vision Research. 34:1994;143-149.
122. Schaeffel F., Troilo D., Wallman J., Howland H.C. Developing eyes that lack accommodation grow to compensate for imposed defocus. Vis. Neurosci. 4:1990;177-183.
123. Schmid K.L., Strang N.C., Wildsoet C.F. Imposed retinal image size changes - do they provide a cue to the sign of lens-induced defocus in chick? Optom. Vis. Sci. 76:1999;320-325.
124. Schmid K.L., Wildsoet C.F. Effects on the compensatory responses to positive and negative lenses of intermittent lens wear and ciliary nerve section in chicks. Vision Research. 36:1996;1023-1036.
125. Schmid K.L., Wildsoet C.F. The sensitivity of the chick eye to refractive defocus. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 17:1997;61-67.
126. Schwahn H.N., Schaeffel F. Chick eyes under cycloplegia compensate for spectacle lenses despite six-hydroxy dopamine treatment. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 35:1994;3516-3524.
127. Schwahn H.N., Schaeffel F. Flicker parameters are different for suppression of myopia and hyperopia. Vision Research. 37:1997;2661-2673.
128. Shih Y.F., Fitzgerald M.E., Cuthbertson S.L., Reiner A. Influence of ophthalmic nerve fibers on choroidal blood flow and myopic eye growth in chicks. Exp. Eye Res. 69:1999;9-20.
129. Shih Y.F., Fitzgerald M.E., Norton T.T., Gamlin P.D., Hodos W., Reiner A. Reduction in choroidal blood flow occurs in chicks wearing goggles that induce eye growth toward myopia. Curr. Eye Res. 12:1993;219-227.
130. Shih Y.F., Fitzgerald M.E., Reiner A. Effect of choroidal and ciliary nerve transection on choroidal blood flow, retinal health, and ocular enlargement. Vis. Neurosci. 10:1993;969-979.
131. o in the toad retina during maintained illumination. J. Gen. Physiol. 84:1984;475-504.
132. Siegwart J.T. Jr, Norton T.T. Goggles for controlling the visual environment of small animals. Lab. Anim. Sci. 44:1994;292-294.
133. Smith E.I., Maguire G., Watson J. Axial lengths and refractive errors in kittens reared with an optically induced anisometropia. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 19:1980;1250-1255.
134. Smith E.L. III. Spectacle lenses and emmetropization: the role of optical defocus in regulating ocular development. Optom. Vis. Sci. 75:1998;388-398.
135. Smith E.L. III, Hung L.F. The role of optical defocus in regulating refractive development in infant monkeys. Vision Research. 39:1999;1415-1435.
136. Smith E.L. III, Hung L.F., Harwerth R.S. Effects of optically induced blur on the refractive status of young monkeys. Vision Research. 34:1994;293-301.
137. Smith E.L. III, Fox D.A., Duncan G.C. Refractive-error changes in kitten eyes produced by chronic on-channel blockade. Vision Research. 31:1991;833-844.
138. Smith E.L. III, Harwerth R.S., Crawford M.L., von Noorden G.K. Observations on the effects of form deprivation on the refractive status of the monkey. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 28:1987;1236-1245.
139. Snyder A.W., Pask C. The Stiles-Crawford effect - explanation and consequences. Vision Research. 13:1973;1115-1137.
140. Steinberg R.H. Monitoring communications between photoreceptors and pigment epithelial cells: Effects of "mild" systemic hypoxia. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 28:1987;1888-1904.
141. Steinberg R.H., Linsenmeier R.A., Griff E.R. Retinal pigment epithelial cell contributions to the electrooculogram. Osborne N., Chader G. Progress in Retinal Research. Vol. IV:1985;33-66 Pergamon, New York.
142. Stiles W.S., Crawford B.H. The luminous efficiency of rays entering the eye pupil at different points. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 112:1933;428-450.
143. Stone R., Lin T., Laties A. Muscarinic Antagonist Effects on Experimental Chick Myopia. Experimental Eye Research. 52:1991;755-758.
144. Tigges M., Tigges J., Fernandes A., Eggers H.M., Gammon J.A. Postnatal axial eye elongation in normal and visually deprived rhesus monkeys. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 31:1990;1035-1046.
145. Troilo D. Experimental studies of emmetropization in the chick. Bock G.R., Widdows K. Myopia and the Control of Eye Growth. Vol. 155:1990;89-101 John Wiley and Sons, Chichester.
146. Troilo D., Gottlieb M.D., Wallman J. Visual deprivation causes myopia in chicks with optic nerve section. Curr. Eye Res. 6:1987;993-999.
147. Troilo D., Judge S.J. Ocular development and visual deprivation myopia in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Vision Research. 33:1993;1311-1324.
148. Tsuboi S. Measurement of the volume flow and hydraulic conductivity across the isolated dog retinal pigment epithelium. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 28:1987;1776-1782.
149. van Alphen, G. W. (1990) Emmetropization in the primate eye. Ciba Found. Symp. 155, 115-120; discussion 120-125.
150. Vingrys A.J., Squires M.A., Napper G.A., Barrington M., Vessey G.A., Brennan N.A. Prevention of form deprivation myopia in post-hatch chickens. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 32:(Suppl.):1991;1203.
151. Vo T.D., Coleman D.J., Iwamoto T., Silverman R.H., Rondeau M.J. An animal model for myopia: increase in axial length of the rabbit eye by ultrasonically induced cataract. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 28:(Suppl.):1987;217.
152. Wadley, R., Junghans, B., Liang, H. and Dickson, M. (2000) The development of a quantitative x-ray microanalysis protocol for the examination of the chicken eye. Journal of Microscopy and Microanalysis, in press.
153. Wallman J., Gottlieb M.D., Rajaram V., Fugate-Wentzek L.A. Local retinal regions control local eye growth and myopia. Science. 237:1987;73-77.
154. Wallman J., Turkel J., Trachtman J. Extreme myopia produced by modest change in early visual experience. Science. 201:1978;1249-1251.
155. Wallman J., Wildsoet C., Xu A., Gottlieb M.D., Nickla D.L., Marran L., Krebs W., Christensen A.M. Moving the retina: choroidal modulation of refractive state. Vision Research. 35:1995;37-50.
156. Wallman J., Xu A., Wildsoet C.W., Krebs W., Gottlieb M., Marran L., Nickla D. Moving the retina: a third mechanism of focusing the eye. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. Supp 33:1992;1053.
157. Weiss S., Schaeffel F. Diurnal growth rhythms in the chicken eye: relation to myopia development and retinal dopamine levels. J. Comp. Physiol. [A]. 172:1993;263-270.
158. Westbrook A.M., Crewther D.P., Crewther S.G. Cone receptor sensitivity is altered in form deprivation myopia in the chicken. Optom. Vis. Sci. 76:1999;326-338.
159. Westbrook A.M., Crewther S.G., Crewther D.P., Liang H. An electroretinographic study of monocular vision deprivation in formoguanamine treated chicks. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 34:(Suppl.):1993;1209.
160. Westbrook A.M., Crewther S.G., Liang H., Beresford J.A., Allen M., Keller I., Crewther D.P. Formoguanamine-induced inhibition of deprivation myopia in chick is accompanied by choroidal thinning while retinal function is retained. Vision Research. 35:1995;2075-2088.
161. Westbrook A.M.C. Form Deprivation Myopia in the Chicken: An Electroretinographic Investigation. 1996;University of New South Wales.
162. Wiesel T.N., Raviola E. Myopia and eye enlargement after neonatal lid fusion in monkeys. Nature. 266:1977;66-68.
163. Wildsoet C., Wallman J. Choroidal and scleral mechanisms of compensation for spectacle lenses in chicks. Vision Research. 35:1995;1175-1194.
164. Wildsoet C.F., Howland H.C., Falconer S., Dick K. Chromatic aberration and accommodation: their role in emmetropization in the chick. Vision Research. 33:1993;1593-1603.
165. Wildsoet C.F., Pettigrew J.D. Experimental myopia anomalous eye growth patterns unaffected by optic nerve section in chicks: evidence for local control eye growth. Clinical Vision Sciences. 3:1988;99-107.
166. Wildsoet C.F., Pettigrew J.D. Kainic acid-induced eye enlargement in chickens: differential effects on anterior and posterior segments. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 29:1988;311-319.
167. Yamamoto F., Honda Y. Effects of intravenous iodoacetate and iodate outside rod photoreceptors in cat retina. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science. 34:1993;2009-2017.
168. Yinon U., Koslowe K., Rassin M. The optical effects of eyelid closure on the eyes of kittens reared in light and dark. Current Eye Research. 3:1984;431-439.
169. Young R.W. The renewal of photoreceptor cell outer segments. Journal of Cell Biology. 33:1967;61-72.
170. Young R.W., Bok D. Participation of the retinal pigment epithelium in the rod outer segment renewal process. Journal of Cell Biology. 42:1969;392-403.
171. Young R.W., Droz B. The renewal of protein in retinal rods and cones. Journal of Cell Biology. 39:1968;169-184.
172. Zimmerman R.P., Corfman T.P. A comparison of the effects of isomers of alpha-aminoadipic acid and 2-amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid on the light response of the Müller glial cell and the electroretinogram. Neuroscience. 12:1984;77-84.