Genetic and state variables of neurocognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia: A twin study

Schizophrenia Bulletin

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 459-477

  Pardo, Patricia J ^a,d   Knesevich, Mary Ann ^b   Vogler, George P ^c   Pardo, José V ^a,d   Towne, Bradford ^e   Cloninger, C Robert ^f   Posner, Michael I ^g  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT DALLAS   (United States)

^c PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^e WRIGHT STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^f WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^g WEILL CORNELL MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

Attention; Cognition; Neuropsychology; Schizophrenia; State; Trait; Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; ATTENTION; CLINICAL ARTICLE; COGNITIVE DEFECT; FEMALE; HEREDITY; HUMAN; MALE; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SCHIZOPHRENIA; TWINS;

EID: 0033922337     PISSN: 05867614     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033466     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Adler, L.E.; Hoffer, L.J.; Griffith, J.; Waldo, M.C.; and Freedman, R. Normalization by nicotine in deficient auditory sensory gating in the relatives of schizophrenics. Biological Psychiatry, 32:607-616, 1992.
2. Adler, L.E.; Olincy, A.; Waldo, M.; Harris, J.G.; Griffith, J.; Stevens, K.; Flach, K.; Nagamoto, H.; Bickford, P.; Leonard, S.; and Freedman, R. Schizophrenia, sensory gating, and nicotinic receptors. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 24(2):189-202, 1998.
3. American Psychiatric Association. DSM-III-R: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed., revised. Washington, DC: The Association, 1987.
4. Andreasen, N.C. The role of the thalamus in schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 42:27-33, 1997a.
5. Andreasen, N.C. The evolving concept of schizophrenia: From Kraepelin to the present and future. Schizophrenia Research, 28:105-109, 1997b.
6. Axelrod, B.N., and Henry, R.R. Age-related performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting, similarities, and controlled oral word association tests. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 6:16-26, 1992.
7. Axelrod, B.N.; Paulo, A.M.; and Abraham, E. Do normative data from the full WCST extend to the abbreviated WCST? Assessment, 4:41-46, 1997.
8. Axelrod, B.N.; Woodars, J.L.; and Henry, R.R. Analysis of an abbreviated form of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 6:16-26, 1992.
9. Bachus, S.E.; Hyde, T.M.; Herman, M.M.; Egan, M.F.; and Kleinman, J.E. Abnormal cholecystokinin mRNA levels in entorhinal cortex of schizophrenics. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 31:233-256, 1997.
10. Basso, M.R.; Nasrallah, H.A.; Olson, S.C.; and Bornstein, R.A. Cognitive deficits distinguish patients with adolescent-and adult-onset schizophrenia. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 10:107-112, 1997.
11. Benes, F.M. The role of stress and dopamine-GABA interactions in the vulnerability for schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 31:257-275, 1997.
12. A and benzodiazepine receptor binding activity in the hippocampal formation of schizophrenic brain. Brain Research, 755:121-129, 1997.
13. Berman, K.F.; Ostrem, J.L.; Randolph, C.; Gold, J.; Goldberg, T.E.; Coppola, R.; Carson, R.E.; Herscovitch, P.; and Weinberger, D.R. Physiological activation of a cortical network during performance of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A positron emission tomography study. Neuropsychologia, 33:1027-1046, 1995.
14. Bertolino, A.; Callicott, J.H.; Elman, I.; Mattay, V.S.; Tedeschi, G.; Frank, J.A.; Breier, A.; and Weinberger, D.R. Regionally specific neuronal pathology in untreated patients with schizophrenia: A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Biological Psychiatry, 43:641-648, 1998.
15. Bowman, E.M.; Brown, V.J.; Kertzman, C.; Schwartz, U.; and Robinson, D.L. Covert orienting of attention in macaques: I. Effects of behavioral context. Journal of Neurophysiology, 70:431-443, 1993.
16. Braff, D.L., and Swerdlow, N.R. Neuroanatomy of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 23(3):509-512, 1997.
17. Buchanan, R.W., and Carpenter, W.T. The neuroanatomies of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 23(3):367-372, 1997.
18. Campana, A.; Macciardi, F.; Gambini, O.; and Scarone, S. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) performance in normal subjects: A twin study. Neuropsychobiology, 34:14-17, 1996.
19. Cannon, TD. On the nature and mechanisms of obstetric influences in schizophrenia - A review and synthesis of epidemiologic studies. International Review of Psychiatry, 9:387-397, 1997.
20. Cannon, T.D. Neurodevelopmental influences in the genesis and epigenesis of schizophrenia: An overview. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 7:47-62, 1998.
21. Cantor-Graae, E.; McNeil, T.F.; Rickler, K.C.; Sjostrom, K.; Rawlings, R.; Higgins, E.S.; and Hyde, T.M. Are neurological abnormalities in well discordant monozygotic co-twins of schizophrenic subjects the result of perinatal trauma? American Journal of Psychiatry, 151:1194-1199, 1994.
22. Carlsson, A.; Hansson, L.O.; Waters, N.; and Carlsson, M.L. Neurotransmitter aberrations in schizophrenia: New perspectives and therapeutic implications. Life Sciences, 61:75-94, 1997.
23. 2 PET study during single-trial Stroop task performance. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154:1670-1675, 1997.
24. Chapman, L.J., and Chapman, J.P. The measurement of differential deficit. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 14:303-311, 1978.
25. Chapman, L.J.; Chapman, J.P.; and Miller, G.A. In: Maher, B.A., ed. Progress in Experimental Personality Research. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1964. pp. 49-77.
26. Cornblatt, B.A., and Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. Global attentional deviance as a marker of risk for schizophrenia: Specificity and predictive validity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94:470-486, 1985.
27. Cornblatt, B., and Obuchowski, M. Update of high-risk research - 1987-1997. International Review of Psychiatry, 9:437-447, 1997.
28. Crow, T.J.; Done, D.J.; and Sacker, A. Cerebral lateralization is delayed in children who later develop schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 22:181-185, 1996.
29. Davis, J.O., and Bracha, H.S. Prenatal growth markers in schizophrenia: A monozygotic co-twin control study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153:1166-1172, 1996.
30. Davis, K.L.; Buchsbaum, M.S.; Shihabuddin, L.; Spiegel-Cohen, J.; Metzger, M.; Frecska, E.; Keefe, R.S.; and Powchik, P. Ventricular enlargement in poor-outcome schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 43:783-793, 1998.
31. DeLisi, L.E.; Sakuma, M.; Kushner, M.; Finer, D.L.; Hoff, A.L.; and Crow, T.J. Anomalous cerebral asymmetry in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 23(2):255-271, 1997.
32. Derbyshire, S.W.G.; Vogt, B.A.; and Jones, A.K.P. Pain and Stroop interference tasks activate separate processing modules in anterior cingulate cortex. Experimental Brain Research, 118:52-60, 1998.
33. Early, T.S.; Posner, M.I.; Reiman, E.M.; and Raichle, M.E. Hyperactivity of the left striato-pallidal projection: I. Lower level theory. Psychiatric Developments, 7:85-101, 1989a.
34. Early, T.S.; Posner, M.I.; Reiman, E.M.; and Raichle, M.E. Hyperactivity of the left striato-pallidal projection: II. Phenomenology and thought disorder. Psychiatric Developments, 7:109-121, 1989b.
35. Endicott, J., and Spitzer, R.L. A diagnostic interview: The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35:835-844, 1978.
36. Farde, L. Brain imaging of schizophrenia - The dopamine hypothesis. Schizophrenia Research, 28:157-162, 1997.
37. Faroane, S.V.; Seidman, L.J.; Kremen, W.S.; Pepple, J.R.; Lyons, M.J.; and Tsuang, M.T. Neuropsychological functioning among the nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients: A diagnostic efficiency analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104:286-304, 1995.
38. Fatemi, S.H.; Sidwell, R.; Akhter, P.; Sedgewick, J.; Thuras, P.; Bailey, K.; and Kist, D. Human influenza viral infection in utero increases nNOS expression in hippocampi of neonatal mice. Synapse, 29:84-88, 1998.
39. Finkelstein, J.R.J.; Cannon, T.D.; Gur, R.E.; Moberg, P. Attentional dysfunctions in neuroleptic-naive and neuroleptic withdrawn schizophrenic patients and their siblings. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106:203-212, 1997.
40. Fletcher, P.C.; Frith, C.D.; Grasby, P.M.; Friston, K.J.; and Dolan, R.J. Local and distributed effects of apomorphine on fronto-temporal function in acute unmedicated schizophrenia. Journal of Neuroscience, 16:7055-7062, 1996.
41. Franke, P.; Maier, W.; Hardt, J.; and Hain, C. Cognitive functioning and anhedonia in subjects at risk for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 10:77-84, 1993.
42. Freedman, R.; Coon, H.; Myles-Worsley, M.; Orr-Urtreger, A.; Olincy, A.; Davis, A.; Polymeropoulos, M.; Holik, J.; Hopkins, J.; Hoff, M.; Rosenthal, J.; Waldo, M.C.; Reimherr, F.; Wender, P.; Yaw, J.; Young, D.A.; Breese, C.R.; Adams, C.; Patterson, D.; Adler, L.E.; Kruglyak, L.; Leonard, S.; and Beyerly, W. Linkage of a neurophysiological deficit in schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 94:587-592, 1997.
43. Friedman, H.R., and Goldman-Rakic, P.S. Coactivation of prefrontal cortex and inferior parietal cortex in working memory tasks revealed by 2DG functional mapping in the rhesus monkey. Journal of Neuroscience, 14:2775-2788, 1994.
44. Friston, K.J. The disconnection hypothesis. Schizophrenia Research, 30:115-125, 1998.
45. Gold, J.M., and Harvey, P.D. Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Psychiatric Clinics in North America, 16:295-312, 1993.
46. Golden, C.J. Identification of brain disorders by the Stroop Color and Word Test. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32:654-658, 1976.
47. Goldberg, T.E.; Torrey, E.F.; Berman, K.F.; and Weinberger, D.R. Relations between neuropsychological performance and brain morphological and physiological measures in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 55:51-61, 1994.
48. Goldberg, T.E.; Torrey, E.F.; Gold, J.M.; Bigelow, L.B.; Ragland, R.D.; Taylor, E.; and Weinberger, D.R. Genetic risk of neuropsychological impairment in schizophrenia: A study of monozygotic twins discordant and concordant for the disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 17:77-84, 1997.
49. Goldman, R.S.; Axelrod, B.N.; and Tompkins, L.M. Effect of instructional cues on schizophrenic patients' performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149:1718-1722, 1992.
50. Gottesman, I.I. Schizophrenia epigenesis: Past, present, and future. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, Supplementum, 384:26-33, 1994.
51. Green, M.F.; Nuechterlein, K.H.; and Breitmeyer, B. Backward masking performance in unaffected siblings of schizophrenic patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54:465-472, 1997.
52. Harvey, S.A.; Nelson, E.; Haller, J.W.; and Early, T.S. Lateralized attentional abnormality in schizophrenia is correlated with the severity of symptoms. Biological Psychiatry, 33:93-99, 1993.
53. Heaton, R.K. A Manual for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, 1981.
54. Heckers, S. Neuropathology of schizophrenia: Cortex, thalamus, basal ganglia, neurotransmitter-specific projection systems. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 23(3):403-421, 1997.
55. Hirsch, S.R.; Das, I.; Garey, L.J.; and de Belleroche, J. A pivotal role for glutamate in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, and its cognitive dysfunction. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 56:797-802, 1997.
56. Iacono, W.G.; Moreau, M.; Beiser, M.; Fleming, J.A.; and Lin, T.Y. Smooth-pursuit eye tracking in first-episode psychotic patients and their relatives. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101:104-116, 1992.
57. Kaplan, R.D.; Szechtman, H.; Franco, S.; Szechtman, B.; Nahmias, C.; Garnett, E.S.; List, S.; and Cleghorn, J.M. Three clinical syndromes of schizophrenia in untreated subjects: Relation to brain glucose activity measured by positron emission tomography (PET). Schizophrenia Research, 11:47-54, 1993.
58. Keefe, R.S.; Silverman, J.M.; Roitman, S.E.; Harvey, P.D.; Duncan, M.A.; Alroy, D.; Siever, L.J.; Davis, K.L.; and Mohs, R.C. Performance of nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients on cognitive tests. Psychiatry Research, 53:1-12, 1994.
59. Keverne, E.B. Genomic imprinting in the brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 7:463-468, 1997.
60. Kinney, D.K.; Holzman, P.S.; Jacobsen, B.; Jansson, L.; Faber, B.; Hildebrand, W.; Kasell, E.; and Zimbalist, M.E. Thought disorder in schizophrenic and control adoptees and their relatives. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54:475-479, 1997.
61. Kinney, D.K.; Levy, D.L.; Yurgelun-Todd, D.A.; Tramer, S.J.; and Holzman, P.S. Inverse relationship of perinatal complications and eye tracking dysfunction in relatives of patients with schizophrenia: Evidence for a two-factor model. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155:976-978, 1998.
62. Kwon, J.S.; Shenton, M.E.; Hirayasu, Y.; Salisbury, D.F.; Fischer, I.A.; Dickey, C.C.; Yurgelun-Todd, D.; Tohen, M.; Kikinis, R.; Jolesz, F.A.; and McCarley, R.W. MRI study of cavum septi pellucidi in schizophrenia, affective disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155:509-514, 1998.
63. Levy, D.L., and Holzman, P.S. Eye tracking dysfunction and schizophrenia: An overview with special reference to the genetics of schizophrenia. International Review of Psychiatry, 9:365-371, 1997.
64. Liddle, P.F.; Friston, K.J.; Frith, C.D.; Hirsch, S.R.; Jones, T.; and Frackowiak, R.S.J. Patterns of cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 160:179-186, 1992.
65. Luciana, M.; Collins, P.F.; and Depue, R.A. Opposing roles for dopamine and serotonin in the modulation of human spatial working memory functions. Cerebral Cortex, 8:218-226, 1998.
66. 2 dopamine receptor agonist. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 4:58-68, 1992.
67. Lykken, D.T.; McGue, M.; Tellegen, A.; and Bouchard, T.J., Jr. Emergenesis: Genetic traits that may not run in families. American Psychologist, 47:1565-1577, 1992.
68. Mangun, G.R. Neural mechanisms of visual selective attention. Psychophysiology, 32:4-18, 1995.
69. Marsh, L.; Suddath, R.L.; Higgins, N.; and Weinberger, D.R. Medial temporal lobe structures: Relationship of size to duration of illness. Schizophrenia Research, 11:225-238, 1994.
70. Maruff, P.; Hay, D.; Malone, V.; and Currie, J. Asymmetries in the covert orienting of visual spatial attention in schizophrenia. Neuropsychologia, 33:1205-1223, 1995.
71. Matthysee, S.; Holzman, P.S.; and Lange, K. The genetic transmission of schizophrenia: Application of Mendelian latent structure analysis to eye tracking dysfunctions in schizophrenia and affective disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 20:57-76, 1986.
72. Mednick, S., and Olin, S.S. Prospective studies in schizophrenia: Identification of precursors. Psychiatria Fennica, 27:21-38, 1996.
73. Mesulam, M.-M. Attention, confusional states, and neglect. In: Mesulam, M.-M. ed. Principles of Behavioral Neurology. Philadelphia, PA: Davis, 1985. pp. 125-168.
74. Metz, J.T.; Johnson, M.D.; Pliskin, N.H.; and Luchins, D.J. Maintenance of training effects on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test by patients with schizophrenia or affective disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151:120-122, 1994.
75. Milner, B. Some effects of frontal lobectomy in man. In: Warren, J.M., and Kert, K.A., eds. The Frontal Granular Cortex and Behavior. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1964. pp. 313-334.
76. Mirsky, A.F.; Kugelmass, S.; Ingraham, L.J.; Frenkel, E.; and Nathan, M. Overview and summary: Twenty-five-year followup of high-risk children. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 21(2):227-239, 1995.
77. Müeller, H.J., and Rabbitt, P.M.A. Reflexive and voluntary orienting of visual attention: Time course of activation and resistance to interruption. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 15:315-330, 1989.
78. Nobre, A.C.; Sebestyen, G.N.; Gitelman, D.R.; Mesulam, M.M.; Frackowiak, R.S.J.; and Frith, C.D. Functional localization of the system for visuospatial attention using positron emission tomography. Brain, 120:515-533, 1997.
79. 1 receptors in schizophrenia revealed by PET. Nature, 385:634-636, 1997.
80. Olney, J.W., and Farber, N.B. Glutamate receptor dysfunction and schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52:998-1007, 1995.
81. Onstad, S.; Skre, I.; Torgersen, T.; and Kringlen, E. Twin concordance for DSM-III-R schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 83:395-401, 1991.
82. Pardo, J.V.; Fox, P.T.; and Raichle, M.E. Localization of a human system for sustained attention by positron emission tomography. Nature, 349:61-64, 1991.
83. Pardo, J.V.; Pardo, P.J.; Janer, K.W.; and Raichle, M.E. The anterior cingulate cortex mediates processing selection in the Stroop attentional conflict paradigm. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 87:256-259, 1990.
84. Petersen, S.E.; Corbetta, M.; Miezen, F.M.; Shulman, G.L. PET studies of parietal involvement in spatial attention: Comparison of different task types. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 48:319-338, 1994.
85. Portas, C.M.; Goldstein, J.M.; Shenton, M.E.; Hokama, H.H.; Wible, C.G.; Fischer, I.; Kikinis, R.; Donnino, R.; Jolesz, F.A.; and McCarley, R.W. Volumetric evaluation of the thalamus in schizophrenic male patients using magnetic resonance imaging. Biological Psychiatry, 43:649-659, 1998.
86. Posner, M.I. Chronometric Explorations of the Mind. New York, NY: Oxford University, 1986.
87. Posner, M.I., and Dehaene, S. Attentional networks. Trends in Neurosciences, 17:75-79, 1994.
88. Posner, M.I.; Early, T.S.; Reiman, E.; Pardo, P.J.; and Dhawan, M. Asymmetries in hemispheric control of attention in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45:814-821, 1988a.
89. Posner, M.I., and Petersen, S.E. The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13:25-42, 1990.
90. Posner, M.I.; Petersen; S.E.; Fox, P.T.; and Raichle, M.E. Localization of cognitive operations in the human brain. Science, 240:1627-1631, 1988b.
91. Prescott C.A., and Gottesman, I.I. Genetically mediated vulnerability to schizophrenia. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 16:245-267, 1993.
92. Puglisi-Allegra, S.; Kempf, E.; and Cabib, S. Role of genotype in the adaptation of the brain dopamine system to stress. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 14:523-528, 1990.
93. Robinson, D.L.; Bowman, E.M.; Kertzman, C. Covert orienting of attention on macaques: II. Contributions of parietal cortex. Journal of Neurophysiology, 74:698-712, 1995.
94. Robinson, D.L., and Kertzman, C. Covert orienting of attention on macaques: III. Contributions of the superior colliculus. Journal of Neurophysiology, 74:713-721, 1995.
95. Saunders, R.C.; Kolachana, B.S.; Bachevalier, J.; and Weinberger, D.R. Neonatal lesions of the medial temporal lobe disrupt prefrontal cortical regulation of striatal dopamine. Nature, 393:169-171, 1998.
96. 1 dopamine receptors in prefrontal cortex: Involvement in working memory. Science, 251:947-251, 1991.
97. Scarone, S.; Abbruzzese, M.; and Gambini, O. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test discriminates schizophrenic patients and their siblings. Schizophrenia Research, 10:103-107, 1993.
98. Sedvall, G.; Pauli, S.; Karlsson, P.; Farde, L.; Nordström, A.-L.; Nyberg, S.; and Halldin, C. PET imaging of neuroreceptors in schizophrenia. European Neuropharmacology Supplement, 5:25-30, 1995.
99. Seidman, L.J.; Faroane, S.V.; Goldstein, J.M.; Goodman, J.M.;, Kremen, W.S.; Matsuda, G.; Hoge, E.A.; Kennedy, D.; Makris, N.; Caviness, V.S.; and Tsuang, M.T. Reduced subcortical brain volumes on nonpsychotic siblings of schizophrenic patients. American Journal of Medical Genetics (Neuropsychiatric Genetics), 74:507-514, 1997a.
100. Seidman L.J.; Goldstein, J.M.; Goodman, J.M.; Koren, D.; Turner, W.M.; Faroane, S.V.; and Tsuang, M.T. Sex differences in olfactory identification and Wisconsin Card Sorting performance in schizophrenia: Relationship to attention and verbal ability. Biological Psychiatry, 42:104-115, 1997b.
101. Shakow, D. Segmental set: The adaptive process in schizophrenia. American Psychologist, 32:129-139, 1977.
102. Shlik, J.; Vasar, E.; and Bradwein, J. Cholecystokinin and psychiatric disorders: Role in aetiology and potential of receptor antagonists in therapy. CNS Drugs, 8:134-152, 1997.
103. Silberstein, R.B.; Ciorciari, J.; and Pipingas, A. Steady-state visually evoked potential topography during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 96:24-35, 1995.
104. Snyder, A.Z.; Abdullaev, Y.G.; Posner, M.I.; and Raichle, M.E. Scalp electrical potentials reflect regional cerebral blood flow responses during the processing of written words. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 92:1689-1693, 1995.
105. Stevens, J.R. Anatomy of schizophrenia revisited. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 23(3):373-383, 1997.
106. Stratta, P.; Mancini, F.; Mattei, P.; Casacchia, M.; and Rossi, A. Information processing strategy to remediate Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia: A pilot study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151:915-918, 1994.
107. Suddath, R.L.; Christison, G.W.; Torrey, E.F.; Casanova, M.F.; and Weinberger, D.R. Anatomical abnormalities in the brains of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. New England Journal of Medicine, 322:789-794, 1990.
108. Summerfelt, A.T.; Alphs, L.D.; Wagman, A.M.; Funderburk, F.R.; Hierholzer, R.M.; and Strauss, M.E. Reduction of perseverative errors in patients with schizophrenia using monetary feedback. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100:613-616, 1991.
109. Tamminga, C.A. Schizophrenia and glutaminergic transmission. Critical Reviews in Neurobiology, 12:21-36, 1998.
110. Thibaut, F.; Martinez, M.; Petit, M.; Jay, M.; and Campion, D. Further evidence for anticipation in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research, 59:25-33, 1995.
111. Torrey, E.F.; Miller, J.; Rawlings, R.; and Yolken, R.H. Seasonality of births in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: A review of the literature. Schizophrenia Research, 28:1-38, 1997.
112. Tsuang, M.T. Recent advances in genetic research on schizophrenia. Journal of Biomedical Science, 5:28-30, 1998.
113. Uusitalo, M.A.; Williamson, S.J.; and Seppa, M.T. Dynamical organisation of the human visual system revealed by lifetimes of activation traces. Neuroscience Letters, 213:149-152, 1996.
114. Verdoux, H.; Magnin, E.; and Bourgeois, M. Neuroleptic effects on neuropsychological test performance in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 14:133-139, 1995.
115. Vogler, G.P.; Gottesman, I.I.; and Knesevich, J.W. Diagnostic ratings in a twin study of psychiatric disorders: Judging the judges. [Abstract]. Behavioral Genetics, 18:735, 1988.
116. Volkow, N.D.; Gur, R.C.; Wang, G.-J.; Fowler, J.S.; Moberg, P.J.; Ding, Y.-S.; Hitzemann, R.; Smith, G.; and Logan, J. Association between decline in brain dopamine activity with age and cognitive and motor impairment in healthy individuals. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155:344-349, 1998.
117. Volz, H.-P.; Gaser, C.; Häger, F.; Rzanny, R.; Mentzel, H.-J.; Kreitschmann-Andermahr, I.; Kaiser, W.A.; and Sauer, H. Brain activation during cognitive stimulation with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test - A functional MRI study on healthy volunteers and schizophrenics. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging Section, 75:145-157, 1997.
118. Walker, E.F., and Diforio, D. Schizophrenia: A neural diathesis-stress model. Psychological Review, 104:667-685, 1997.
119. Ward, K.E.; Friedman, L.; Wise, A.; and Schultz, S.C. Meta-analysis of brain and cranial size in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 22:197-213, 1996.
120. Weinberger, D.R., and Lipska, B.K. Cortical maldevelopment, anti-psychotic drugs, and schizophrenia: A search for common ground. Schizophrenia Research, 16:87-110, 1995.
121. Whitehead, R. Right hemisphere processing superiority during sustained visual attention. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 3:329-334, 1991.
122. Wigal, S.B.; Swanson, J.M.; and Potkin, S.G. Lateralized attentional deficits in drug-free and medicated schizophrenic patients. Neuropsychologia, 35:1519-1525, 1997.
123. Woolf, C.M. Does the genotype for schizophrenia often remain unexpressed because of canalization and stochastic events during development? Psychological Medicine, 27:659-668, 1997.
124. Zatorre, R.J.; Evans, A.C.; and Meyer, E. Neural mechanisms underlying melodic perception and memory for pitch. Journal of Neuroscience, 14:1908-1919, 1994.