Schizophrenia and glutamatergic transmission

Critical Reviews in Neurobiology

Volumn 12, Issue 1-2, 1998, Pages 21-36

  Tamminga, Carol A ^a  

^a MARYLAND PSYCHIATRIC RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Brain imaging; Glutamate receptor; Ketamine; NMDA; PCP; Postmortem; Psychosis; Schizophrenia

Indexed keywords

GLUTAMIC ACID; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; PHENCYCLIDINE; PSYCHEDELIC AGENT;

AUTOPSY; BRAIN DISEASE; CINGULATE GYRUS; DISEASE COURSE; EFFERENT NERVE; HIPPOCAMPUS; HUMAN; NEUROCHEMISTRY; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SYMPTOM;

EID: 0031979134     PISSN: 08920915     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1615/CritRevNeurobiol.v12.i1-2.20     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Tamminga, C. A., The neuropsychiatric aspects of schizophrenia, in Third Edition of the Textbook of Neuropsychiatry, APA Press, Washington, D.C., 1997, 855-882.
2. Carlsson, A. and Lindqvist, M., Effect of chlorpromazine or haloperidol on formation of 3-methoxytyramine and normetanephrine in mouse brain, Acta. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 20, 140, 1963.
3. van Kammen, D. P., Peter, J., Yao, J. et al., Norepinephrine and relapse in chronic schizophrenia: negative symptoms revisited, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 47, 161, 1990.
4. Meltzer, H. Y., The role of serotonin in the action of atypical antipsychotic drugs, Clin. Neurosci., 3, 64, 1995.
5. Breslin, N. A., Suddath, R. L., Bissette, G., Nemeroff, C. B., Lowrimore, P., and Weinberger, D. R., CSF concentration of neurotensin in schizophrenia: an investigation of clinical and biochemical correlates, Schizophrenia Res., 12, 35, 1994.
6. Whetsell, W. O. and Shapira, N. A., Neuroexcitation, excitotoxicity, and human neurological disease, Biol. Dis., 68(4), 372, 1993.
7. Brooks, V. B., Ransmeier, R. E., and Gerard, R. S., Action of anticholinesterases, drugs, and intermediates on respiration and electrical activity of the isolated frog brain, Am. J. Physiol, 157, 299, 1949.
8. Hayashi, T., The effects of sodium glutamate on the nervous system, Keio. J. Med., 3, 183, 1954.
9. Curtis, D. R. and Watkins, J. C., Acidic amino acids with strong excitatory actions on mammalian neurons, J. Physiol. (London), 166, 1, 1963.
10. Storm-Mathisen, J., Otterson, O. P., FuLong, T. et al., Metabolism and transport of amino acids studied by immunocytochemistry, Med. Biol., 64, 127, 1986.
11. Naito, S. and Ueda, T., Adenosine triphosphate-dependent uptake of glutamate into protein I-associated vesicles, J. Biol. Chem., 258, 696, 1983.
12. 2+, J. Neurochem., 56, 86, 1991.
13. Kanai, Y., Smith, C. P., and Hediger, M. A., The elusive transporters with a high affinity for glutamate, Trends Neurosci., 16, 359, 1993.
14. Nicklas, W. J., Glia-neuronal inter-relationships in the metabolism of excitatory amino acids, in Excitatory Amino Acids, Roberts, P. J., Storm-Mathisen, J., and Bradford, H. F., Eds., MacMillan, London, 1986, 57.
15. Lucas, D. R. and Newhouse, J. P., The toxic effect of sodium L-glutamate on the inner layers of the retina, AMA Arch. Ophth., 58, 193, 1957.
16. Olney, J. W., Glutamate-induced retinal degeneration of neonatal mice. Electron microscopy of the acutely evolving lesion, J. Neuropath. Exp. Neurol., 28, 455, 1969.
17. Olney, J. W. and Sharpe, L. G., Brain lesions in an infant rhesus monkey treated with monosodium glutamate, Science, 166, 386, 1969.
18. MacDermott, A. B., Mayer, M. L., Westbrook, G. L., Smith, S. J., and Barker, J. L., NMDA-receptor activation increases cytoplasmic calcium concentration in cultured spinal cord nerves, Nature, 321, 519, 1986.
19. Greenamyre, J. T. and Porter, R. H. P., Anatomy and physiology of glutamate in the CNS, Neurology, 44, S7, 1994.
20. Raiteri, M., Marchi, M., Casti, A. et al., Endogenenous aspartate release in the rat hippocampus is inhibited by M2 "cardiac" muscarinic receptors, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 177, 181, 1990.
21. 1 area, J. Neurochem., 56, 1647, 1991.
22. 1 of the hippocampus, J. Neurosci., 13, 3944, 1993.
23. Watkins, J. C. and Evans, R. H. Excitatory amino acid transmitters, Ann. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol., 21, 165, 1981.
24. Fagg, G. E. and Massieu, L., Excitatory amino acid-receptors subtypes, in Amino Acid Antagonists, Meldrum, B. S., Ed., Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1991, 39.
25. Nakanishi, S., Molecular diversity of glutamate receptors and implications for brain function, Science, 258, 597, 1992.
26. Tanabe, Y., Masu, M., Ishii, T. et al., A family of metabotropic glutamate receptors, Neuron, 8, 169, 1992.
27. Meldrum, B. S., The role of glutamate in epilepsy and other CNS disorders, Neurology, 44, S14, 1994.
28. Stevens, J., Djamgoz, M. B. A., and Wilkin, G. P., A patch clamp study of excitatory amino acid effects on cortical astrocyte subtypes in culture, Recept. Chann., 1, 39, 1993.
29. Boulter, J., Hollmann, M., O'Shea-Greenfield, A. et al., Molecular cloning and functional expression of glutamate receptor subunit genes, Science, 249, 1033, 1990.
30. Egebjerg, J., Bettler, B., Hermans-Borgmeyer, I. et al., Cloning of a cDNA for a glutamate receptor subunit activated by kainate but not AMPA, Nature, 351, 745, 1991.
31. Hollmann, M. and Heinemann, S., Cloning glutamate receptors, in Annu. Rev. Neurosci., Cowan, W. M., Shooter, E. M., Stevens, C. F., Thompson, R. F., Eds., 17, 31, 1994.
32. Monyer, H., Burnashev, N., Laurie, D. J., Sakmann, B., and Seeburg, P. H., Developmental and regional expression in the rat brain and functional properties of four NMDA receptors, Neuron, 12, 529, 1994.
33. Huntley, G. W., Vickers, J. C., and Morrison, J. H., Cellular and synaptic localization of NMDA and non-NMDA receptor subunits in neocortex: organizational features related to cortical, function, and disease, TINS, 17(12), 536, 1994.
34. Brewer, G. and Cotman, C. S., NMDA promotes branching, MK-801 stimulates elongation of dentate gyrus granule neurons, Soc. Neurosci. Abstr., 14, 115, 1988.
35. Mattson, M., Dou, P., and Kater, S. B., Outgrowth-regulating actions of glutamate in isolated hippocampal pyramidal neurons, J. Neurosci., 8, 2087, 1988.
36. Morris, R. G., Anderson, E., Lynch, G. S., and Baudry, M., Selective impairment of learning and blockade of long-term potentiation by an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, AP5, Nature, 319, 774, 1986.
37. Lynch, G., Kessler, M., Arai, A., and Larson, J., The nature and causes of hippocampal long-term potentiation, in Progress in Brain Research, Storm-Mathisen, J., Zimmer, J., Ottersen, O. P., Eds., Elsevier Publishers, B. V., The Netherlands, 1990, 233.
38. Roberts, A. C., Robbins, T. W., Everitt, B. J., and Muir, J. L., A specific form of cognitive rigidity following excitotoxic lesions of the basal forebrain in marmosets, Neuroscience, 47(2), 252, 1992.
39. Carlsson, M. and Carlsson, A., The NMDA antagonist MK801 caused marked locomotor stimulation in monoamine-depleted rats, J. Neural. Transm., 75, 221, 1989.
40. Choi, D. W. and Rothman, S. M., The role of glutamate neurotoxicity in hypoxic-ischemic neuronal death, Ann. Rev. Neurosci., 13, 171, 1990.
41. Sloviter, R. S., Permanently altered hippocampal structure, excitability, and inhibition after experimental status epilepticus in the rat: the "dormant basket cell" hypothesis and its possible relevence to temporal lobe epilepsy, Hippocampus, 1, 41, 1991.
42. Turski, L., Bressler, K., Rettig, K. J., Loschmann, P. A., and Wachtel, H., Protection of substantia nigra from MPP+ neurotoxicity by N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists, Nature, 2349, 414, 1991.
43. Schwarcz, R., Whetsell, W. O., Jr., and Mangano, R. M., Quinolinic acid: an endogenous metabolite that produces axon-sparing lesions in rat brain, Science, 219, 316, 1983.
44. Ulas, J., Brunner, L. C., Geddes, J. W., Choe, W., and Cotman, C. W., N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor complex in the hippocampus of elderly, normal individuals and those with Alzheimer's disease, Neuroscience, 49, 45, 1992.
45. Olney, J. W. and Farber, N. B., Glutamate receptor dysfunction and schizophrenia, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 52, 998, 1995.
46. Coyle, J. T. and Puttfarcken, P., Oxidative stress, glutamate, and neurodegenerative disorders, Science, 262, 689, 1993.
47. Nemeroff, C. B., Youngblood, W., Manberg, P. J. et al., Regional brain concentrations of neuropeptides in Huntington's chorea and schizophrenia, Science, 221, 972, 1983.
48. Carpenter, W. T. and Buchanan, R. W., Domains of psychopathology relevant to the study of etiology and treatment in schizophrenia, in Schizophrenia: Scientific Progress, Oxford University Press, New York, 1989, 13.
49. Carpenter, W. T., Buchanan, R. W., Kirkpatrick, B., Tamminga, C. A., and Wood, F., Strong inference, theory testing and the neuroanatomy of schizophrenia, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 50, 825, 1993.
50. Andreasen, N. C., Rezai, K., Alliger, R. et al., Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 49, 943, 1982.
51. Tamminga, C. A., Thaker, G. K., Buchanan, R., Kirkpatrick, B., Alphs, L. D., Chase, T. N., and Carpenter, W. T., Limbic system abnormalities identified in schizophrenia using positron emmission tomography with fluorodeoxyglucose and neocortical alterations with deficit syndrome, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 49, 522, 1992.
52. Kim, J. S., Kornhuber, H. H., Schmid-Beugk, W., and Holzmuller, B., Low cerebrospinal fluid glutamate in schizophrenic patients and a new hypothesis on schizophrenia, Neurosci. Lett., 20, 379, 1980.
53. Deutsch, S. I., Mastropaolo, J., Schwartz, B., Rosse, R. B., and Morihisa, J. M., A glutamatergic hypothesis of schizophrenia, Clin. Neuropharm., 12, 1, 1989.
54. Carlsson, M. and Carlsson, A., Interactions between glutamatergic and monoaminergic systems within the basal ganglia: implications for schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease, Trends Neurosci., 7, 272, 1990.
55. Javitt, D. C. and Zukin, S. R., Mechanisms of phencyclidine (PCP)-N-Methyl-Aspartate (NMDA) receptor interaction: implications for schizophrenia, in Schizophrenia: Research Progress, Schultz, S. C. and Tamminga, C. A., Eds., Raven Press, New York, 1991, 12.
56. Tamminga, C. A., Gao, X-M., and Lahti, A. C., Amino acids: evidence for GABAergic and glutamatergic transmission abnormalities in schizophrenia, in Schizophrenia: An Integrated View, Fog, R., Gerlach, J., Hemmingsen, R., Krogsgaard-Larsen, P., and Thaysen, J. H., Eds., Munksgaard Press, Copenhagen, 1995.
57. Macciardi, F., Lucca, A., Catalane, M., Marino, C., Zanardi, R., and Smeraldi, E., Amino acid patterns in schizophrenia: some new findings, Psychiat. Res., 32, 63, 1990.
58. Korpi, E. R., Kaufmann, C. A., Marnela, K. M., and Weinberger, D. R., Cerebrospinal fluid amino acid concentrations in chronic schizophrenia, Psychiat. Res., 20, 337, 1987.
59. Gattaz, W. F., Gasser, T., and Beckmann, H., Multidimensional analysis of the concentrations of 17 substances in the CSF of schizophrenics and controls, Biol. Psychiat., 20, 360, 1985.
60. Anis, N. A., Berry, S. C., Burtonm, N. R., and Lodge, D., The dissociative anesthetics ketamine and phencyclidine, selectively reduce excitation of central mammalian neurons by N-methyl-D-aspartate, Br. J. Pharmacol., 79, 5654, 1983.
61. Kristensen, J. D., Svensson, B., and Gordh, T., The NMDA-receptor antagonist CPP abolishes neurogenic "wind-up pain" after intrathecal administration in humans, Pain, 51, 249, 1992.
62. Grotta, J., Clark, W., Coull, B., Pettigrew, C., Mackay, B., Goldstein, L. B., Meissner, I., Murphy, D., and LaRue, L., Safety and tolerability of the glutamate antagonist CGS·19755 (Selfotel) in patients with acute ischemic stroke, Stroke, 26, 602, 1995.
63. Nishikawa, T., Takashima, M., and Toru, M., Increased [3H]-kainic acid binding in the prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia, Neurosci. Lett., 40, 245, 1983.
64. Toru, M., Watanabe, S., Shibuya, H., Nishikawa, T., Noda, K., Mitsushio, H., Ichikawa, H., Kurumaji, A., Takashima, M., Mataga, N. et al., Neurotransmitters, receptors and neuropeptides in postmortem brains of chronic schizophrenic patients, Acta Psychiatrica Scand., 78, 121, 1988.
65. Simpson, M. D. C., Slater, P., Royston, M. C., and Deakin, J. F. W., Regionally selective deficits in uptake sites for glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid in the basal ganglia of schizophrenics, Psychiat. Res., 42, 273, 1992.
66. Deakin, J. F., Slater, P., Simpson, M. D., Gilchrist, A. C., Skan, W. J., Royston, M. C., Reynolds, G. P., and Cross, A. J., Frontal cortical and left temporal glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia, J. Neurochem., 52, 1781, 1989.
67. Simpson, M. D. C., Slater, P., Royston, M. C., and Deakin, J. F. W., Alterations in phencyclidine and sigma binding sites in schizophrenic brains: effects of disease process and neuroleptic medication, Schiz. Res., 6, 41, 1992.
68. Harrison, P. J., McLaughlin, D., and Kerwin, R. W., Decreased hippocampal expression of a glutamate receptor gene in schizophrenia, Lancet, 337, 450, 1991.
69. Kerwin, R., Patel, S., and Meldrum, B., Quantitative autoradiographic analysis of glutamate binding sites in the hippocampal formation in normal and schizophrenic brain postmortem, Neuroscience, 39, 25, 1990.
70. 3H] MK-801 binding sites in postmortem brain regions of schizophrenic patients, J. Neural Transmission, 77, 231, 1989.
71. Weissman, A. D., Casanova, M. F., Kleinman, F., London, E. D., and DeSouza, E. B., Selective loss of cerebral sigma, but not PCP binding sites in schizophrenia, Biol. Psychiat., 29, 41, 1991.
72. Ulas, J. and Cotman, C. W., Excitatory amino acid receptors in schizophrenia, Schiz. Bull., 19, 105, 1993.
73. Sherman, A. D., Hegwood, T. S., Baruah, S., and Waziri, R., Deficient NMDA-mediated glutamate release from synaptosomes of schizophrenics, Biol. Psychiat., 30, 1191, 1991.
74. Tsai, G., Passani, L. A., Slusher, B. S., Carter, R., Baer, L., Kleinman, J. E., and Coyle, J. T., Abnormal excitatory neurotransmitters metabolism in schizophrenic brains, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 52, 829, 1995.
75. Javitt, D. C. and Zukin, S. R., Recent advances in the phencyclidine model of schizophrenia, Am. J. Psychiat., 148(10), 1301, 1991a.
76. 3H]glutamate-binding sites in rat brain, J. Neurosci., 5, 2909, 1985.
77. Henley, J. M., Jenkins, R., and Hunt, S. P., Localization of glutamate receptor binding sites and mRNAS to the dorsal horn of the rat spinal cord, Neuropharmacology, 32(1), 37, 1993.
78. Tamminga, C. A., Tanimoto, K., Kuo, S., Chase, T. N., Contreras, P. C., Rice, K. C., Jackson, A. E., and O'Donohue, T. L., PCP-induced alterations in cerebral glucose utilization in rat brain: blockade by metaphit, a PCP-receptor acylating agent, Synapse, 1, 497, 1987.
79. Weissman, A. D., Dam, M., and London, E. G., Alterations in local cerebral glucose utilization induced by phencyclidine, Brain Res., 435, 29, 1987.
80. Papez, J. W., A proposed mechanism of emotion, Arch. Neurol. Psych., 38, 725, 1937.
81. Lahti, A. C., Holcomb, H. H., Medoff, D. R., and Tamminga, C. A., Ketamine activates psychosis and alters limbic blood flow in schizophrenia, Neuroreport., 6, 869, 1995.
82. Silbersweg, D. A., Stern, E., Frith, C., Cahill, C., Holmes, A., Grootoonk, S., Seaward, J., McKenna, P., Chua, S. E., Schnorr, L., Jones, T., and Frackowiak, R. S. J., A functional neuroanatomy of hallucinations in schizophrenia, Nature, 378, 176, 1995.
83. Holcomb, H. H., Caudill, P. J., Medoff, D. R., Zhao, Z., Lahti, A. C., Ravert, H. T., Dannals, R. F., and Tamminga, C. A., Cerebral blood flow patterns and relationships associated with a difficult tone recognition task in trained normal volunteers, submitted.
84. Stevens, J. R., An anatomy of schizophrenia? Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 29, 177, 1973.
85. Bogerts, B., Meertz, E., and Schonfeldt-Bausch, R., Basal ganglia and schizophrenia, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 42, 784, 1985.
86. Kovelman, J. A. and Scheibel, A. B., A neuro-histological correlate of schizophrenia, Biol. Psychiat., 19, 1601, 1984.
87. Falkai, P. and Bogerts, B., Cell loss in the hippocampus of schizophrenics, Eur. Arch. Psych. Neurol. Sci., 236, 154, 1986.
88. Jeste, D. V. and Lohr, J. B., Hippocampal pathologic findings in schizophrenia, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 46, 1019, 1989.
89. Pakkenberg, B., Pronounced reduction of total neuron number in mediodorsal thalamic nucleus and nucleus accumbens in schizophrenics, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 47, 1023, 1990.
90. Benes, F. M. and Bird, E. D., An analysis of the arrangement of neurons in the cingulate cortex of schizophrenic patients, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 44, 608, 1987.
91. Benes, F. M., Vincent, S. L., Alsterberg, G., Bird, E. D., and SanGiovanni, J. P., Increased GABAA receptor binding in superficial layers of cingulate cortex in schizophrenics, J. Neurosci., 12, 924, 1992.
92. Benes, F. M., Neurobiological investigations in cingulate cortex of schizophrenic brain, Schizophrenia Bull., 19(3), 537, 1993.
93. Bogerts, B., Ashtari, M., Degreef, G., Alvir, J. M., Bilder, R. M., and Lieberman, J. A., Reduced temporal limbic structure volumes on magnetic resonance images in first episode schizophrenia, Psychiat. Res., 35, 1, 1990.
94. Suddath R. L., Christison, G. W., Torrey, E. F., Casanova, M. F., and Weinberger, D. R., Anatomical abnormalities in the brains of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia, N. Engl. J. Med., 322(12), 789, 1990.
95. Pearlson, G. D., Psychiatric and medical syndromes with phencyclidine (PCP) abuse, Johns Hopkins Med., 148, 25, 1981.
96. Luby, E. D., Cohen, B. D., Rosenbaum, G., Gottlieb, J. S., and Kelley, R., Study of a new schizophrenomimetic drug serenyl, Arch. Neurol. Psychiat., 71, 363, 1959.
97. Domino, E. F., History and pharmacology of PCP and PCP-related analogs, J. Psychoact. Drugs., 12, 223, 1980.
98. Domino, E. F. and Luby, E., Abnormal mental states induced by phencyclidine as a model of schizophrenia, in PCP (Phencyclidine): Historical and Current Perspectives, Domono, E. F., Ed., NPP Books, Ann Arbor, MI, 1981.
99. Olney, J. W., Labruyere, J., and Price, M. T., Pathological changes induced in cerebrocortical neurons by phencyclidine and related drugs, Science, 244, 1360, 1989.
100. Sharp, F. R., Butman, M., Wang, S., Koistinaho, J., Graham, S. H., Sagar, S. M., Noble, L., Berger, P., and Longo, F. M., Haloperidol prevents induction of the hsp70 heat shock gene in neurons injured by phencyclidine (PCP) MK801, and ketamine, J. Neurosci. Res., 33, 605, 1992.
101. Gao, X.-M., Shirakawa, O., Du, F., and Tamminga, C. A., Delated regional metabolic actions of phencyclidine, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 241, 7, 1993a.
102. Gao, X.-M., Hashimoto, T., and Tamminga, C. A., Time-dependent changes in expression of immediate early genes after phencyclidine, Neurosci. Abstr., 20, 732, 1994.
103. 3H]-glutamate binding at hippocampal CA, NMDA receptors 24 hours after PCP, Neurosci. Lett., 174, 149, 1994.
104. Gao, X.-M. and Tamminga, C. A., MK801 induces late regional increases in NMDA and kainate receptor binding in rat brain, J. Neural. Transm., 101, 105, 1995.
105. Gao, X.-M., Hashimoto, T., and Tamminga, C. A., Time-dependent changes in expression of NR1, NR2A, and NR2B NMDA receptor subunits after MK801, Neurosci. Abstr., 21, 838, 1995.
106. Brocher, S., Artola, A., and Singer, W., Intracellular injection of Ca2-chelators blocks induction of longterm depression in rat visual cortex, Proc. Nalt. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 89, 123, 1992.
107. Krystal, J. H., Karper, L. P., Seibyl, J. P., Freeman, G. K., Delaney, R., Bremner, J. D., Heninger, G. R., Bowers, M. B., and Charney, D. S., Subanesthetic effects of the noncompetitive NMDA agonist, ketamine, in humans, Arch. Gen. Psychiat., 51, 199, 1994.
108. Tamminga, C. A., Cascella, N., Fakouhi, T. D., and Herting, R. L., Enhancement of NMDA-mediated transmission in schizophrenia, in Novel Antipsychotic Drugs, Meltzer, H. Y., Ed., Raven Press, New York, 1992, 171.
109. Costa, J., Khaled, E., Sramek, J. et al., An open trial of glycine as an adjustment to neuroleptics in chronic treatment refractory schizophrenics, J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 10, 71, 1990.
110. Rosse, R. B., Thent, S. K., Banay-Schwatz, M. et al., Glycine adjustment therapy to conventional neuroleptic treatment in schizophrenia: an open-label, pilot study, Clin. Neuropharmacol., 12, 416, 1989.
111. Potkin, S. G., Costa, J., Roy, S., Sramek, J., Jin, Y., and Gulasekarem, B., Glycine in the treatment of schizophrenia: theory and preliminary results, in Novel Antipsychotic Drugs, Meltzer, H. Y., Ed., Raven Press, New York, 1992, 179.
112. Waziri, R., Glycine therapy of schizophrenia [Letter], Biol. Psychiat., 23, 210, 1988.
113. Javitt, D. C., Zylberman, I., Zukin, S. R. et al., Amelioration of negative symptoms in schizophrenia by glycine, Am. J. Psychiat., 151, 1234, 1994.
114. D'Souza, D. C., Morrissey, K., Abi-Saab, D., and Krystal, J., IV glycine and oral D-cycloserine: effects on CSF amino acids, plasma proteins, cognition, and behavior in healthy humans. Presented at the ACNP Annual Meeting, December 1995, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
115. Simeon, J., Fink, M., Itil, T. M., and Ponce, D., D-Cycloserine therapy of psychosis by symptom provocation, Compr. Psychiat., 11, 80, 1970.
116. Cascella, N. G., Macciardi, F., Cavallini, C., and Smeraldi, E., D-Cycloserine adjuvant therapy to conventional neuroleptic treatment in schizophrenia: an open-label study, J. Neural. Transm., 95, 105, 1994.
117. Goff, D. C., Guochuan, T., Manoach, D. S., and Coyle, J. T., D-Cycloserine for negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Presented at the ACNP Annual Meeting, 1994, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
118. Lahti, A. C., Koffel, B., LaPorte, D., and Tamminga, C. A., Subanesthetic doses of ketamine stimulate psychosis in schizophrenia, Neuropsychopharmacology, 13, 19, 1995.
119. Lahti, A. C., Holcomb, H. H., Medoff, D. R., and Tamminga, C. A., Ketamine activates psychosis and alters limbic blood flow in schizophrenia, NeuroReport, 6, 869, 1995.
120. Lahti, A. C., Holcomb, H. H., Medoff, D. M., and Tamminga, C. A., Ketamine actions on rCBF in schizophrenic and normal volunteers. Presented at the ACNP Annual Meeting; December 1995, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
121. Medoff, D. R., Lahti, A. C., Holcomb, H. H., Zhao, M., Priebe, C. E., and Tamminga, C. A., Pharmacodynamic analysis of ketamine action in schizophrenia, Neuroscience, 826, 17, 1995.
122. Holcomb, H. H., Cascella, N. G., Thaker, G. K., Medoff, D. R., Dannals, R. F., and Tamminga, C. A., Functional sites of neuroleptic drug action in the human brain and PET/FDG studies with and without haloperidol, Am. J. Psychiat., 153, 41, 1996.