The lost city of solidarity: Metropolitan unionism in historical perspective

Politics and Society

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 561-585

  Gordon, Colin ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033454147     PISSN: 00323292     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0032329299027004005     Document Type: Review

References (198)

1. See Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Making Post-Industrial Unionism Possible," in Sheldon Friedman, Richard Hurd, Rudolph Oswald, and Ronald Seeber, eds., Restoring the Promise of American Labor Law (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 286-87; Joel Rogers, "Divide and Conquer: Further 'Reflections on the Distinctive Character of American Labor Laws,' " Wisconsin Law Review 1990, no. 1 (1990): 1-147; and, on the larger collapse of the New Deal order, David Gordon, "Chickens Home to Roost: From Prosperity to Stagnation in the Postwar U.S. Economy," in Michael Bernstein and David Adler, eds., Understanding American Economic Decline (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 34-76.
2. See Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Making Post-Industrial Unionism Possible," in Sheldon Friedman, Richard Hurd, Rudolph Oswald, and Ronald Seeber, eds., Restoring the Promise of American Labor Law (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 286-87; Joel Rogers, "Divide and Conquer: Further 'Reflections on the Distinctive Character of American Labor Laws,' " Wisconsin Law Review 1990, no. 1 (1990): 1-147; and, on the larger collapse of the New Deal order, David Gordon, "Chickens Home to Roost: From Prosperity to Stagnation in the Postwar U.S. Economy," in Michael Bernstein and David Adler, eds., Understanding American Economic Decline (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 34-76.
3. See Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Making Post-Industrial Unionism Possible," in Sheldon Friedman, Richard Hurd, Rudolph Oswald, and Ronald Seeber, eds., Restoring the Promise of American Labor Law (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 286-87; Joel Rogers, "Divide and Conquer: Further 'Reflections on the Distinctive Character of American Labor Laws,' " Wisconsin Law Review 1990, no. 1 (1990): 1-147; and, on the larger collapse of the New Deal order, David Gordon, "Chickens Home to Roost: From Prosperity to Stagnation in the Postwar U.S. Economy," in Michael Bernstein and David Adler, eds., Understanding American Economic Decline (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 34-76.
4. See Daniel Luria and Joel Rogers, "A New Urban Agenda," Boston Review 22, no. 1 (February/March 1997); Midwest Consortium for Economic Development Alternatives, Metro Futures: A High-Wage, Low-Waste, Democratic Development Strategy for America's Cities and Inner Suburbs (New York: Sustainable America, 1996).
5. See Daniel Luria and Joel Rogers, "A New Urban Agenda," Boston Review 22, no. 1 (February/March 1997); Midwest Consortium for Economic Development Alternatives, Metro Futures: A High-Wage, Low-Waste, Democratic Development Strategy for America's Cities and Inner Suburbs (New York: Sustainable America, 1996).
6. Dorothy Sue Cobble, Dishing It Out: Waitresses and Their Unions in the Twentieth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 137-48; Cobble, "The Prospects for Unionism in a Service Society," in Cameron Macdonald and Carmen Sirianni, eds., Working in the Service Society (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1996); Howard Wial, "The Emerging Organizational Structure of Unionism in Low-Wage Services," Rutgers Law Review 45 (1993): 680-92; Judy Fudge, "The Gendered Dimension of Labour Law: Why Women Need Inclusive Unionism and Broader-Based Bargaining," in Linda Briskin and Patricia McDermott, eds., Women Challenging Unions: Feminism, Democracy, and Militancy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 231-46.
7. Dorothy Sue Cobble, Dishing It Out: Waitresses and Their Unions in the Twentieth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 137-48; Cobble, "The Prospects for Unionism in a Service Society," in Cameron Macdonald and Carmen Sirianni, eds., Working in the Service Society (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1996); Howard Wial, "The Emerging Organizational Structure of Unionism in Low-Wage Services," Rutgers Law Review 45 (1993): 680-92; Judy Fudge, "The Gendered Dimension of Labour Law: Why Women Need Inclusive Unionism and Broader-Based Bargaining," in Linda Briskin and Patricia McDermott, eds., Women Challenging Unions: Feminism, Democracy, and Militancy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 231-46.
8. Dorothy Sue Cobble, Dishing It Out: Waitresses and Their Unions in the Twentieth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 137-48; Cobble, "The Prospects for Unionism in a Service Society," in Cameron Macdonald and Carmen Sirianni, eds., Working in the Service Society (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1996); Howard Wial, "The Emerging Organizational Structure of Unionism in Low-Wage Services," Rutgers Law Review 45 (1993): 680-92; Judy Fudge, "The Gendered Dimension of Labour Law: Why Women Need Inclusive Unionism and Broader-Based Bargaining," in Linda Briskin and Patricia McDermott, eds., Women Challenging Unions: Feminism, Democracy, and Militancy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 231-46.
9. Dorothy Sue Cobble, Dishing It Out: Waitresses and Their Unions in the Twentieth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 137-48; Cobble, "The Prospects for Unionism in a Service Society," in Cameron Macdonald and Carmen Sirianni, eds., Working in the Service Society (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1996); Howard Wial, "The Emerging Organizational Structure of Unionism in Low-Wage Services," Rutgers Law Review 45 (1993): 680-92; Judy Fudge, "The Gendered Dimension of Labour Law: Why Women Need Inclusive Unionism and Broader-Based Bargaining," in Linda Briskin and Patricia McDermott, eds., Women Challenging Unions: Feminism, Democracy, and Militancy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 231-46.
10. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
11. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
12. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
13. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
14. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
15. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
16. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
17. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
18. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
19. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
20. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
21. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
22. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
23. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
24. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union':
25. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
26. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
27. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
28. The historiography on metropolitan unionism is pretty thin, and what there is rarely addresses the issue directly. Historians have devoted some attention to local labor movements and the relationship between labor and machine politics, although much of this focuses on the late nineteenth and very early twentieth centuries. See Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class in the Late Nineteenth Century," in Aristide Zolberg and Ira Katznelson, eds., Working Class Formation: Nineteenth-Century Patterns in Western Europe and the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), 197-276; Christopher Ansell and Arthur Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite! Labor Politics and Political Machine Consolidation, 1870-1910," Studies in American Political Development 11, no. 1 (1997): 1-43; James Barrett, "Unity and Fragmentation: Class, Race and Ethnicity on Chicago's South Side, 1900-1922," Journal of Social History 18, no. 1 (1984): 37-55; Cecelia Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City in the Early Twentieth Century United States," International Labor and Working Class History 48 (1995): 28-48; Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881 to 1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Ira Katznelson, City Trenches: Urban Politics and the Patterning of Class in the United States (New York: Pantheon, 1981); Michael Kazin, "The Great Exception Revisited: Organized Labor and Politics in San Francisco and Los Angeles, 1870-1940," Pacific Historical Review 55, no. 3 (1986): 371-402; George Leidenberger, " 'The Public Is the Labor Union': Working-Class Progressivism in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago," Labor History 36, no. 2 (1995): 187-210; Gwendolyn Mink, Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party, and State, 1875-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986); Richard Oestreicher, "Urban Working-Class Political Behavior and Teories of American Electoral Politics, 1870-1940," Journal of American History 74, no. 4 (1988): 1257-86. The historical literature on the CIO is vast but generally follows the industrial logic of the CIO itself. Accounts that devote some attention to local bargaining and local politics include Ronald Schatz, The Electrical Workers: A history of Labor at General Electric and Westinghouse (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983); Roger Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight": A Social History of Industrial Unionism in Meatpacking (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Steve Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UNiversity Press, 1993); Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Gary Gerstle, Working Class Americanism: The Politics of Labor in a Textile City, 1914-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). There is also a scattering of older work - much of it by institutional economists - that focuses quite usefully on labor relations in specific settings. See, for example, Barbara Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement: Metropolitan Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961); C. Lawrence Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," in Harry Millis, ed., How Collective Bargaining Works (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1942); Thomas Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965); Juan Suarez, "Study of a City Central Body: Collective Bargaining Activities of the Minneapolis Central Labor Union, 1946-1957" (M.A. thesis, University of Minnesota, 1966).
29. William Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry (New York: Arno, 1971 [1930]), 3-11, 50, 127-96; Clarence Bonett, Employers' Associations in the United States: A Study of Typical Associations (New York: Macmillan, 1922), 170-73; Royal Montgomery, Industrial Relations in the Chicago Building Trades (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1927), 4-5, 8; Lloyd Ulman, The Rise of the National Trade Union (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966), 345-48; Leo Wolman, The Growth of American Trade Unions, 1880-1923 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1924), 110-19.
30. William Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry (New York: Arno, 1971 [1930]), 3-11, 50, 127-96; Clarence Bonett, Employers' Associations in the United States: A Study of Typical Associations (New York: Macmillan, 1922), 170-73; Royal Montgomery, Industrial Relations in the Chicago Building Trades (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1927), 4-5, 8; Lloyd Ulman, The Rise of the National Trade Union (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966), 345-48; Leo Wolman, The Growth of American Trade Unions, 1880-1923 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1924), 110-19.
31. William Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry (New York: Arno, 1971 [1930]), 3-11, 50, 127-96; Clarence Bonett, Employers' Associations in the United States: A Study of Typical Associations (New York: Macmillan, 1922), 170-73; Royal Montgomery, Industrial Relations in the Chicago Building Trades (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1927), 4-5, 8; Lloyd Ulman, The Rise of the National Trade Union (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966), 345-48; Leo Wolman, The Growth of American Trade Unions, 1880-1923 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1924), 110-19.
32. William Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry (New York: Arno, 1971 [1930]), 3-11, 50, 127-96; Clarence Bonett, Employers' Associations in the United States: A Study of Typical Associations (New York: Macmillan, 1922), 170-73; Royal Montgomery, Industrial Relations in the Chicago Building Trades (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1927), 4-5, 8; Lloyd Ulman, The Rise of the National Trade Union (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966), 345-48; Leo Wolman, The Growth of American Trade Unions, 1880-1923 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1924), 110-19.
33. William Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry (New York: Arno, 1971 [1930]), 3-11, 50, 127-96; Clarence Bonett, Employers' Associations in the United States: A Study of Typical Associations (New York: Macmillan, 1922), 170-73; Royal Montgomery, Industrial Relations in the Chicago Building Trades (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1927), 4-5, 8; Lloyd Ulman, The Rise of the National Trade Union (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966), 345-48; Leo Wolman, The Growth of American Trade Unions, 1880-1923 (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1924), 110-19.
34. Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 209-17; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 806-7; and John Jentz, "Labor, the Law, and Economics: The Organization of the Chicago Flat Janitors' Union, 1902-1917," Labor History 38, no. 4 (1997): 413-31; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 61-112, 214.
35. Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 209-17; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 806-7; and John Jentz, "Labor, the Law, and Economics: The Organization of the Chicago Flat Janitors' Union, 1902-1917," Labor History 38, no. 4 (1997): 413-31; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 61-112, 214.
36. Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 209-17; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 806-7; and John Jentz, "Labor, the Law, and Economics: The Organization of the Chicago Flat Janitors' Union, 1902-1917," Labor History 38, no. 4 (1997): 413-31; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 61-112, 214.
37. Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 209-17; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 806-7; and John Jentz, "Labor, the Law, and Economics: The Organization of the Chicago Flat Janitors' Union, 1902-1917," Labor History 38, no. 4 (1997): 413-31; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 61-112, 214.
38. See Jesse Carpenter, Competition and Collective Bargaining in the Needle Trades, 1910-1967 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972); Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 28-30, 210-14; and other examples in Colin Gordon, New Deals: Business, Labor and Politics in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), chap. 3.
39. See Jesse Carpenter, Competition and Collective Bargaining in the Needle Trades, 1910-1967 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972); Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 28-30, 210-14; and other examples in Colin Gordon, New Deals: Business, Labor and Politics in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), chap. 3.
40. See Jesse Carpenter, Competition and Collective Bargaining in the Needle Trades, 1910-1967 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972); Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 28-30, 210-14; and other examples in Colin Gordon, New Deals: Business, Labor and Politics in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), chap. 3.
41. Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce: Lessons from the History of Waitress Unionism," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 44, no. 3 (1991): 419-28.
42. Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce," 429-30; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry, 3-11, 50; Bonnett, Empoyers' Associations, 170-73; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 54-78; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 848-49; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 86; Gordon, New Deals, chap. 4.
43. Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce," 429-30; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry, 3-11, 50; Bonnett, Empoyers' Associations, 170-73; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 54-78; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 848-49; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 86; Gordon, New Deals, chap. 4.
44. Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce," 429-30; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry, 3-11, 50; Bonnett, Empoyers' Associations, 170-73; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 54-78; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 848-49; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 86; Gordon, New Deals, chap. 4.
45. Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce," 429-30; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry, 3-11, 50; Bonnett, Empoyers' Associations, 170-73; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 54-78; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 848-49; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 86; Gordon, New Deals, chap. 4.
46. Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce," 429-30; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry, 3-11, 50; Bonnett, Empoyers' Associations, 170-73; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 54-78; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 848-49; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 86; Gordon, New Deals, chap. 4.
47. Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce," 429-30; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry, 3-11, 50; Bonnett, Empoyers' Associations, 170-73; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 54-78; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 848-49; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 86; Gordon, New Deals, chap. 4.
48. Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce," 429-30; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industry, 3-11, 50; Bonnett, Empoyers' Associations, 170-73; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 54-78; Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 848-49; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 86; Gordon, New Deals, chap. 4.
49. In 1952, the San Francisco Labor Council (141 AFL locals representing nearly half of the city's population) proposed a chain of neighborhood health centers, linked to the central union hospital, to be funded by bargained benefits; see Albert Deutsch, "A New Union Health Plan," The Nation 175 (20 September 1952): 232-33. A similar plan in Philadelphia was backed by 28 locals; see "Philadelphia Shows the Way," American Federationist 64, no. 4 (1957): 30. See also Elizabeth Fones-Wolf, "Labor and Social Welfare: The CIO's Community Services Program, 1941-1956," Social Service Review 70, no. 4 (1996): 613-34.
50. In 1952, the San Francisco Labor Council (141 AFL locals representing nearly half of the city's population) proposed a chain of neighborhood health centers, linked to the central union hospital, to be funded by bargained benefits; see Albert Deutsch, "A New Union Health Plan," The Nation 175 (20 September 1952): 232-33. A similar plan in Philadelphia was backed by 28 locals; see "Philadelphia Shows the Way," American Federationist 64, no. 4 (1957): 30. See also Elizabeth Fones-Wolf, "Labor and Social Welfare: The CIO's Community Services Program, 1941-1956," Social Service Review 70, no. 4 (1996): 613-34.
51. In 1952, the San Francisco Labor Council (141 AFL locals representing nearly half of the city's population) proposed a chain of neighborhood health centers, linked to the central union hospital, to be funded by bargained benefits; see Albert Deutsch, "A New Union Health Plan," The Nation 175 (20 September 1952): 232-33. A similar plan in Philadelphia was backed by 28 locals; see "Philadelphia Shows the Way," American Federationist 64, no. 4 (1957): 30. See also Elizabeth Fones-Wolf, "Labor and Social Welfare: The CIO's Community Services Program, 1941-1956," Social Service Review 70, no. 4 (1996): 613-34.
52. Jentz, "The Chicago Flat Janitors' Union"; Cobble, Dishing It Out; Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), 269-70.
53. Jentz, "The Chicago Flat Janitors' Union"; Cobble, Dishing It Out; Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), 269-70.
54. Jentz, "The Chicago Flat Janitors' Union"; Cobble, Dishing It Out; Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in American Department Stores (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), 269-70.
55. See Eric Leif Davin and Staughton Lynd, "Picket Line and Ballot Box: The Forgotten Legacy of the Local Labor Party Movement, 1932-1936," Radical History Review 22 (1979-1980): 43-63.
56. William Downard, The Cincinnati Brewing Industry (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1973), 97-154; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 219-21.
57. William Downard, The Cincinnati Brewing Industry (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1973), 97-154; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 219-21.
58. See Carpenter, Competition and Collective Bargaining; Fraser, Labor Will Rule; Gladys Palmer, "Job-Conscious Unionism in the Chicago Men's Clothing Industry," American Economic Review 20 (1930): 28-38; Kurt Braun, Union-Management Cooperation: Experience in the Clothing Industry (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1947), 5-76; Stanley Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 34-46.
59. See Carpenter, Competition and Collective Bargaining; Fraser, Labor Will Rule; Gladys Palmer, "Job-Conscious Unionism in the Chicago Men's Clothing Industry," American Economic Review 20 (1930): 28-38; Kurt Braun, Union-Management Cooperation: Experience in the Clothing Industry (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1947), 5-76; Stanley Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 34-46.
60. See Carpenter, Competition and Collective Bargaining; Fraser, Labor Will Rule; Gladys Palmer, "Job-Conscious Unionism in the Chicago Men's Clothing Industry," American Economic Review 20 (1930): 28-38; Kurt Braun, Union-Management Cooperation: Experience in the Clothing Industry (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1947), 5-76; Stanley Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 34-46.
61. See Carpenter, Competition and Collective Bargaining; Fraser, Labor Will Rule; Gladys Palmer, "Job-Conscious Unionism in the Chicago Men's Clothing Industry," American Economic Review 20 (1930): 28-38; Kurt Braun, Union-Management Cooperation: Experience in the Clothing Industry (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1947), 5-76; Stanley Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 34-46.
62. See Carpenter, Competition and Collective Bargaining; Fraser, Labor Will Rule; Gladys Palmer, "Job-Conscious Unionism in the Chicago Men's Clothing Industry," American Economic Review 20 (1930): 28-38; Kurt Braun, Union-Management Cooperation: Experience in the Clothing Industry (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1947), 5-76; Stanley Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 34-46.
63. On "regulatory unions," see Gordon, New Deals, chap. 4. See also Cobble, Dishing It Out, 70, 92-93, 193-94; Benson, Counter Cultures, 269.
64. On "regulatory unions," see Gordon, New Deals, chap. 4. See also Cobble, Dishing It Out, 70, 92-93, 193-94; Benson, Counter Cultures, 269.
65. On "regulatory unions," see Gordon, New Deals, chap. 4. See also Cobble, Dishing It Out, 70, 92-93, 193-94; Benson, Counter Cultures, 269.
66. See Thomas Bailey and Annette Bernhardt, "In Search of the High Road in a Low-Wage Industry," Politics and Society 25, no. 2 (1997): 179-201 ; Cobble, "The Prospects for Unionism in a Service Society."
67. See Thomas Bailey and Annette Bernhardt, "In Search of the High Road in a Low-Wage Industry," Politics and Society 25, no. 2 (1997): 179-201 ; Cobble, "The Prospects for Unionism in a Service Society."
68. Howard Wial, "New Bargaining Structures for New Forms of Business Organization," in Restoring the Promise of American Labor Law, 304-5.
69. Christopher Tomlins, The State and the Unions: Labor Relations, Law, and the Organized Labor Movement in America, 1880-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 103-47, 317-28; William Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 165-66; Tomlins, "How Who Rides Whom: Recent 'New' Histories of American Labour Law and What They May Signify," Social History 20, no. 1 (1995): 19.
70. Christopher Tomlins, The State and the Unions: Labor Relations, Law, and the Organized Labor Movement in America, 1880-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 103-47, 317-28; William Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 165-66; Tomlins, "How Who Rides Whom: Recent 'New' Histories of American Labour Law and What They May Signify," Social History 20, no. 1 (1995): 19.
71. Christopher Tomlins, The State and the Unions: Labor Relations, Law, and the Organized Labor Movement in America, 1880-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 103-47, 317-28; William Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991), 165-66; Tomlins, "How Who Rides Whom: Recent 'New' Histories of American Labour Law and What They May Signify," Social History 20, no. 1 (1995): 19.
72. Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy, 73-135; Gordon, New Deals, 194-239; Bruce Kaufman, "Why the Wagner Act? Reestablishing Contact with Its Original Purpose," Advances in Industrial and Labor Relations 7 (1996): 15-68; and Peter Swenson, "Arranged Alliance: Business Interests in the New Deal," Politics & Society 25, no. 1 (1997): 66-116.
73. Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy, 73-135; Gordon, New Deals, 194-239; Bruce Kaufman, "Why the Wagner Act? Reestablishing Contact with Its Original Purpose," Advances in Industrial and Labor Relations 7 (1996): 15-68; and Peter Swenson, "Arranged Alliance: Business Interests in the New Deal," Politics & Society 25, no. 1 (1997): 66-116.
74. Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy, 73-135; Gordon, New Deals, 194-239; Bruce Kaufman, "Why the Wagner Act? Reestablishing Contact with Its Original Purpose," Advances in Industrial and Labor Relations 7 (1996): 15-68; and Peter Swenson, "Arranged Alliance: Business Interests in the New Deal," Politics & Society 25, no. 1 (1997): 66-116.
75. Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy, 73-135; Gordon, New Deals, 194-239; Bruce Kaufman, "Why the Wagner Act? Reestablishing Contact with Its Original Purpose," Advances in Industrial and Labor Relations 7 (1996): 15-68; and Peter Swenson, "Arranged Alliance: Business Interests in the New Deal," Politics & Society 25, no. 1 (1997): 66-116.
76. See the essays collected in Lynd, We Are All Leaders; Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991).
77. See the essays collected in Lynd, We Are All Leaders; Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991).
78. On NRA labor policy, see Gordon, New Deals, 206-14; Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy, 73-134; Melvyn Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 111-28; James Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), 43-140.
79. On NRA labor policy, see Gordon, New Deals, 206-14; Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy, 73-134; Melvyn Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 111-28; James Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), 43-140.
80. On NRA labor policy, see Gordon, New Deals, 206-14; Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy, 73-134; Melvyn Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 111-28; James Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), 43-140.
81. On NRA labor policy, see Gordon, New Deals, 206-14; Vittoz, New Deal Labor Policy and the American Industrial Economy, 73-134; Melvyn Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 111-28; James Hodges, New Deal Labor Policy and the Southern Cotton Textile Industry, 1933-1941 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986), 43-140.
82. Fraser, Labor Will Rule, 259-348.
83. Schatz, The Electrical Workers, 73-76.
84. Jurgen Kocka, White Collar Workers in America, 1890-1940 (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980), 167-75, 210-11; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 44-53.
85. Jurgen Kocka, White Collar Workers in America, 1890-1940 (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980), 167-75, 210-11; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 44-53.
86. See Gordon, New Deals, 194-214.
87. "The National Labor Relations Act," United States, Statutes at Large, vol. 49 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office), 449-50; Kaufman, "Why the Wagner Act?"; David Brody, "The Breakdown of Labor's Social Contract," Dissent 39, no. 1 (1992): 36-37.
88. "The National Labor Relations Act," United States, Statutes at Large, vol. 49 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office), 449-50; Kaufman, "Why the Wagner Act?"; David Brody, "The Breakdown of Labor's Social Contract," Dissent 39, no. 1 (1992): 36-37.
89. "The National Labor Relations Act," United States, Statutes at Large, vol. 49 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office), 449-50; Kaufman, "Why the Wagner Act?"; David Brody, "The Breakdown of Labor's Social Contract," Dissent 39, no. 1 (1992): 36-37.
90. Fraser, Labor Will Rule, 209, 282-323.
91. Kocka, White Collar Workers, 227ff; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 192-93; Harold Levinson, Unionism, Wage Trends, and Income Distribution, 1941-1947 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1951), 47-49, 82-92, 112-13.
92. Kocka, White Collar Workers, 227ff; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 192-93; Harold Levinson, Unionism, Wage Trends, and Income Distribution, 1941-1947 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1951), 47-49, 82-92, 112-13.
93. Kocka, White Collar Workers, 227ff; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 192-93; Harold Levinson, Unionism, Wage Trends, and Income Distribution, 1941-1947 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1951), 47-49, 82-92, 112-13.
94. Nelson Lichtenstein, Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982); James Atleson, Labor and the Wartime State: Labor Relations and Law during World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Lichtenstein, "Industrial Democracy, Contract Unionism, and the National War Labor Board," Labor Law Journal 33 (1982): 524-31.
95. Nelson Lichtenstein, Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982); James Atleson, Labor and the Wartime State: Labor Relations and Law during World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Lichtenstein, "Industrial Democracy, Contract Unionism, and the National War Labor Board," Labor Law Journal 33 (1982): 524-31.
96. Nelson Lichtenstein, Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982); James Atleson, Labor and the Wartime State: Labor Relations and Law during World War II (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998); Lichtenstein, "Industrial Democracy, Contract Unionism, and the National War Labor Board," Labor Law Journal 33 (1982): 524-31.
97. Cobble, Dishing It Out; Everett Kassalow, "White Collar Unionism in the United States," in Adolph Fox Sturmthal, ed., White Collar Trade Unions: Comparative Developments in Industrialized Societies (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961), 331-33; Cobble, "Making Post-Industrial Unionism Possible," 293-94; James Gray Pope, "Labor-Community Coalitions and Boycotts: The Old Labor Law, the New Unionism, and the Living Constitution," Texas Law Review 69, no. 4 (1991): 889-943.
98. Cobble, Dishing It Out; Everett Kassalow, "White Collar Unionism in the United States," in Adolph Fox Sturmthal, ed., White Collar Trade Unions: Comparative Developments in Industrialized Societies (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961), 331-33; Cobble, "Making Post-Industrial Unionism Possible," 293-94; James Gray Pope, "Labor-Community Coalitions and Boycotts: The Old Labor Law, the New Unionism, and the Living Constitution," Texas Law Review 69, no. 4 (1991): 889-943.
99. Cobble, Dishing It Out; Everett Kassalow, "White Collar Unionism in the United States," in Adolph Fox Sturmthal, ed., White Collar Trade Unions: Comparative Developments in Industrialized Societies (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961), 331-33; Cobble, "Making Post-Industrial Unionism Possible," 293-94; James Gray Pope, "Labor-Community Coalitions and Boycotts: The Old Labor Law, the New Unionism, and the Living Constitution," Texas Law Review 69, no. 4 (1991): 889-943.
100. Cobble, Dishing It Out; Everett Kassalow, "White Collar Unionism in the United States," in Adolph Fox Sturmthal, ed., White Collar Trade Unions: Comparative Developments in Industrialized Societies (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1961), 331-33; Cobble, "Making Post-Industrial Unionism Possible," 293-94; James Gray Pope, "Labor-Community Coalitions and Boycotts: The Old Labor Law, the New Unionism, and the Living Constitution," Texas Law Review 69, no. 4 (1991): 889-943.
101. See, for example, Schatz, The Electrical Workers; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight"; Fraser, Labor Will Rule; Gerstle, Working Class Americanism.
102. See, for example, Schatz, The Electrical Workers; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight"; Fraser, Labor Will Rule; Gerstle, Working Class Americanism.
103. See, for example, Schatz, The Electrical Workers; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight"; Fraser, Labor Will Rule; Gerstle, Working Class Americanism.
104. See, for example, Schatz, The Electrical Workers; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight"; Fraser, Labor Will Rule; Gerstle, Working Class Americanism.
105. Quote from Staughton Lynd, "Introduction," in We Are All Leaders, 7; see also Staughton Lynd, Solidarity Unionism: Rebuilding the Labor Movement from Below (Chicago: Charles Kerr, 1992), 27-31.
106. Quote from Staughton Lynd, "Introduction," in We Are All Leaders, 7; see also Staughton Lynd, Solidarity Unionism: Rebuilding the Labor Movement from Below (Chicago: Charles Kerr, 1992), 27-31.
107. See David Brody, "Workplace Contractualism in Comparative Perspective," in Nelson Lichtenstein and Howell Harris, eds., Industrial Democracy in America: The Ambiguous Promise (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 176-203; Brody, "Section 8(a)(2) and the Origins of the Wagner Act," in Restoring the Promise of American Labor Law, 29-44; Cohen, Making a New Deal, 251-90; Robert Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1995 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America, 107-35.
108. See David Brody, "Workplace Contractualism in Comparative Perspective," in Nelson Lichtenstein and Howell Harris, eds., Industrial Democracy in America: The Ambiguous Promise (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 176-203; Brody, "Section 8(a)(2) and the Origins of the Wagner Act," in Restoring the Promise of American Labor Law, 29-44; Cohen, Making a New Deal, 251-90; Robert Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1995 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America, 107-35.
109. See David Brody, "Workplace Contractualism in Comparative Perspective," in Nelson Lichtenstein and Howell Harris, eds., Industrial Democracy in America: The Ambiguous Promise (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 176-203; Brody, "Section 8(a)(2) and the Origins of the Wagner Act," in Restoring the Promise of American Labor Law, 29-44; Cohen, Making a New Deal, 251-90; Robert Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1995 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America, 107-35.
110. See David Brody, "Workplace Contractualism in Comparative Perspective," in Nelson Lichtenstein and Howell Harris, eds., Industrial Democracy in America: The Ambiguous Promise (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 176-203; Brody, "Section 8(a)(2) and the Origins of the Wagner Act," in Restoring the Promise of American Labor Law, 29-44; Cohen, Making a New Deal, 251-90; Robert Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1995 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America, 107-35.
111. See David Brody, "Workplace Contractualism in Comparative Perspective," in Nelson Lichtenstein and Howell Harris, eds., Industrial Democracy in America: The Ambiguous Promise (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 176-203; Brody, "Section 8(a)(2) and the Origins of the Wagner Act," in Restoring the Promise of American Labor Law, 29-44; Cohen, Making a New Deal, 251-90; Robert Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1995 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America, 107-35.
112. See Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle; James Lorence, Organizing the Unemployed: Community and Union Activists in the Idustrial Heartland (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996), 237-94; Peter Rachleff, "Organizing 'Wall to Wall': The Independent Union of All Workers, 1933-37," in We Are All Leaders, 51-71.
113. See Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle; James Lorence, Organizing the Unemployed: Community and Union Activists in the Idustrial Heartland (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996), 237-94; Peter Rachleff, "Organizing 'Wall to Wall': The Independent Union of All Workers, 1933-37," in We Are All Leaders, 51-71.
114. See Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle; James Lorence, Organizing the Unemployed: Community and Union Activists in the Idustrial Heartland (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996), 237-94; Peter Rachleff, "Organizing 'Wall to Wall': The Independent Union of All Workers, 1933-37," in We Are All Leaders, 51-71.
115. See Gerstle, Working Class Americanism; Schatz, The Electrical Workers, 53-101; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight," 47-52; Philip Korth, I Remember Like Today: The Auot-Lite Strike of 1934 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1988).
116. See Gerstle, Working Class Americanism; Schatz, The Electrical Workers, 53-101; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight," 47-52; Philip Korth, I Remember Like Today: The Auot-Lite Strike of 1934 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1988).
117. See Gerstle, Working Class Americanism; Schatz, The Electrical Workers, 53-101; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight," 47-52; Philip Korth, I Remember Like Today: The Auot-Lite Strike of 1934 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1988).
118. See Gerstle, Working Class Americanism; Schatz, The Electrical Workers, 53-101; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight," 47-52; Philip Korth, I Remember Like Today: The Auot-Lite Strike of 1934 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1988).
119. Roger Horowitz, "What Did Workers Want in the 1930s, Anyway?" Labor History 38, nos. 2/3 (1997): 169-72; John Borsos, "'We Make You This Appeal in the Name of Every Union Man and Woman in Barberton': Solidarity Unionism in Barberton, Ohio, 1933-41," in We Are All Leaders, 238-93.
120. Roger Horowitz, "What Did Workers Want in the 1930s, Anyway?" Labor History 38, nos. 2/3 (1997): 169-72; John Borsos, "'We Make You This Appeal in the Name of Every Union Man and Woman in Barberton': Solidarity Unionism in Barberton, Ohio, 1933-41," in We Are All Leaders, 238-93.
121. Sharon Hartman Strom, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations," in Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of Women's Labor History (Boston: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1985), 212-15.
122. Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle, 127-28.
123. Alan Derickson, "Health Security for All? Social Unionism and Universal Health Insurance, 1935-1958," Journal of American History 80, no. 4 (March 1994): 1333-56; Colin Gordon, "Why No National Health Insurance in the United States? The Limits of Social Provision in War and Peace, 1941-1948," Journal of Policy History 9, no. 3 (1997): 296-304; Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce," 430.
124. Alan Derickson, "Health Security for All? Social Unionism and Universal Health Insurance, 1935-1958," Journal of American History 80, no. 4 (March 1994): 1333-56; Colin Gordon, "Why No National Health Insurance in the United States? The Limits of Social Provision in War and Peace, 1941-1948," Journal of Policy History 9, no. 3 (1997): 296-304; Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce," 430.
125. Alan Derickson, "Health Security for All? Social Unionism and Universal Health Insurance, 1935-1958," Journal of American History 80, no. 4 (March 1994): 1333-56; Colin Gordon, "Why No National Health Insurance in the United States? The Limits of Social Provision in War and Peace, 1941-1948," Journal of Policy History 9, no. 3 (1997): 296-304; Cobble, "Organizing the Post-Industrial Workforce," 430.
126. Elizabeth Faue, "Paths of Unionization: Community, Bureaucracy, and Gender in the Minneapolis Labor Movement of the 1930s," in Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 296-319; Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Marie LaBerge, " 'Closest to the Hearts and Interests of Women': Wisconsin Women's Housing Activism in the Post-World War II Period" (unpublished manuscript, 1998).
127. Elizabeth Faue, "Paths of Unionization: Community, Bureaucracy, and Gender in the Minneapolis Labor Movement of the 1930s," in Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 296-319; Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Marie LaBerge, " 'Closest to the Hearts and Interests of Women': Wisconsin Women's Housing Activism in the Post-World War II Period" (unpublished manuscript, 1998).
128. Elizabeth Faue, "Paths of Unionization: Community, Bureaucracy, and Gender in the Minneapolis Labor Movement of the 1930s," in Ava Baron, ed., Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 296-319; Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Marie LaBerge, " 'Closest to the Hearts and Interests of Women': Wisconsin Women's Housing Activism in the Post-World War II Period" (unpublished manuscript, 1998).
129. See Fones-Wolf, "Labor and Social Welfare"; Nathan Godfried, "The Origins of Labor Radio: WCFL, The 'Voice of Labor,' 1925-1928" Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 7, no. 2 (1987): 143-59; Robert McChesney, "Labor and the Marketplace of Ideas: WCFL and the Battle for Labor Radio Broadcasting, 1927-1934," Journalism Monographs 134 (1992): 1-40.
130. See Fones-Wolf, "Labor and Social Welfare"; Nathan Godfried, "The Origins of Labor Radio: WCFL, The 'Voice of Labor,' 1925-1928" Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 7, no. 2 (1987): 143-59; Robert McChesney, "Labor and the Marketplace of Ideas: WCFL and the Battle for Labor Radio Broadcasting, 1927-1934," Journalism Monographs 134 (1992): 1-40.
131. See Fones-Wolf, "Labor and Social Welfare"; Nathan Godfried, "The Origins of Labor Radio: WCFL, The 'Voice of Labor,' 1925-1928" Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television 7, no. 2 (1987): 143-59; Robert McChesney, "Labor and the Marketplace of Ideas: WCFL and the Battle for Labor Radio Broadcasting, 1927-1934," Journalism Monographs 134 (1992): 1-40.
132. Rogers, "Divide and Conquer," 29-43.
133. Cobble, "The Prospects for Unionism in a Service Society." On nursing, see Service Employees International Union, "Nurse Alliance Brochure" (1998).
134. Cobble, "The Prospects for Unionism in a Service Society." On nursing, see Service Employees International Union, "Nurse Alliance Brochure" (1998).
135. See Colin Gordon, "Why No Corporatism in the United States? Business Disorganization and Its Consequences," Business and Economic History 27, no. 1 (1998): 29-46; Michael Wallerstein, Miriam Golden, and Peter Lange, "Unions, Employer Associations, and Wage-Setting Institutions in Northern and Central Europe, 1950-1992," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 50, no. 3 (1997): 379-401; Bonnett, Employers' Associations in the United States,
136. See Colin Gordon, "Why No Corporatism in the United States? Business Disorganization and Its Consequences," Business and Economic History 27, no. 1 (1998): 29-46; Michael Wallerstein, Miriam Golden, and Peter Lange, "Unions, Employer Associations, and Wage-Setting Institutions in Northern and Central Europe, 1950-1992," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 50, no. 3 (1997): 379-401; Bonnett, Employers' Associations in the United States, 15-23; J. Windmuller and A. Gladstone, Employer Associations and Industrial Relations: A Comparative Study (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); Jesse Carpenter, Employers' Associations and Collective Bargaining in New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1950), 30-32.
137. See Colin Gordon, "Why No Corporatism in the United States? Business Disorganization and Its Consequences," Business and Economic History 27, no. 1 (1998): 29-46; Michael Wallerstein, Miriam Golden, and Peter Lange, "Unions, Employer Associations, and Wage-Setting Institutions in Northern and Central Europe, 1950-1992," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 50, no. 3 (1997): 379-401; Bonnett, Employers' Associations in the United States, 15-23; J. Windmuller and A. Gladstone, Employer Associations and Industrial Relations: A Comparative Study (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); Jesse Carpenter, Employers' Associations and Collective Bargaining in New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1950), 30-32.
138. See Colin Gordon, "Why No Corporatism in the United States? Business Disorganization and Its Consequences," Business and Economic History 27, no. 1 (1998): 29-46; Michael Wallerstein, Miriam Golden, and Peter Lange, "Unions, Employer Associations, and Wage-Setting Institutions in Northern and Central Europe, 1950-1992," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 50, no. 3 (1997): 379-401; Bonnett, Employers' Associations in the United States, 15-23; J. Windmuller and A. Gladstone, Employer Associations and Industrial Relations: A Comparative Study (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); Jesse Carpenter, Employers' Associations and Collective Bargaining in New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1950), 30-32.
139. See Colin Gordon, "Why No Corporatism in the United States? Business Disorganization and Its Consequences," Business and Economic History 27, no. 1 (1998): 29-46; Michael Wallerstein, Miriam Golden, and Peter Lange, "Unions, Employer Associations, and Wage-Setting Institutions in Northern and Central Europe, 1950-1992," Industrial and Labor Relations Review 50, no. 3 (1997): 379-401; Bonnett, Employers' Associations in the United States, 15-23; J. Windmuller and A. Gladstone, Employer Associations and Industrial Relations: A Comparative Study (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984); Jesse Carpenter, Employers' Associations and Collective Bargaining in New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1950), 30-32.
140. Carpenter, Employers' Associations and Collective Bargaining, 42-44; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 135.
141. Carpenter, Employers' Associations and Collective Bargaining, 42-44; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 135.
142. Gordon, New Deals, 87-121; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 28-30, 210-14; Harris and Williamson, Trends in Collective Bargaining, 26-27; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 94-96; John Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
143. Gordon, New Deals, 87-121; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 28-30, 210-14; Harris and Williamson, Trends in Collective Bargaining, 26-27; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 94-96; John Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
144. Gordon, New Deals, 87-121; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 28-30, 210-14; Harris and Williamson, Trends in Collective Bargaining, 26-27; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 94-96; John Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
145. Gordon, New Deals, 87-121; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 28-30, 210-14; Harris and Williamson, Trends in Collective Bargaining, 26-27; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 94-96; John Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
146. Gordon, New Deals, 87-121; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 28-30, 210-14; Harris and Williamson, Trends in Collective Bargaining, 26-27; Cobble, Dishing It Out, 94-96; John Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
147. Gordon, New Deals, 166-203.
148. The New York women's apparel industry, as one observer noted in 1950, had two competing shoulder pad associations and an "Adjustable Shoulder Strap Association" (Carpenter, Employers' Associations and Collective Bargaining, 38); in the 1940s, the Chicago motion picture industry had two competing trade associations (Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 813, 831-32). See also Robert Myers and Joseph Bloch, "Men's Clothing Industry," in How Collective Bargaining Works, 381-449; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 26-29.
149. The New York women's apparel industry, as one observer noted in 1950, had two competing shoulder pad associations and an "Adjustable Shoulder Strap Association" (Carpenter, Employers' Associations and Collective Bargaining, 38); in the 1940s, the Chicago motion picture industry had two competing trade associations (Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 813, 831-32). See also Robert Myers and Joseph Bloch, "Men's Clothing Industry," in How Collective Bargaining Works, 381-449; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 26-29.
150. The New York women's apparel industry, as one observer noted in 1950, had two competing shoulder pad associations and an "Adjustable Shoulder Strap Association" (Carpenter, Employers' Associations and Collective Bargaining, 38); in the 1940s, the Chicago motion picture industry had two competing trade associations (Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 813, 831-32). See also Robert Myers and Joseph Bloch, "Men's Clothing Industry," in How Collective Bargaining Works, 381-449; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 26-29.
151. The New York women's apparel industry, as one observer noted in 1950, had two competing shoulder pad associations and an "Adjustable Shoulder Strap Association" (Carpenter, Employers' Associations and Collective Bargaining, 38); in the 1940s, the Chicago motion picture industry had two competing trade associations (Christenson, "Chicago Service Trades," 813, 831-32). See also Robert Myers and Joseph Bloch, "Men's Clothing Industry," in How Collective Bargaining Works, 381-449; Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 26-29.
152. Sanford Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited: The Importance of Management," in Sanford Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 174-86, 191-95; Joel Rogers, "Reforming U.S. Labor Relations," in Matthew Finkin, ed., The Legal Future of Employee Representation (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 95-105; Lloyd Ulman, "Who Wanted Collective Bargaining in the First Place?" Contemporary Policy Issues 5 (1987): 1-11; Howell Harris, The Right to Manage: Industrial Relations Policies of American Business in the 1940s (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 15-37.
153. Sanford Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited: The Importance of Management," in Sanford Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 174-86, 191-95; Joel Rogers, "Reforming U.S. Labor Relations," in Matthew Finkin, ed., The Legal Future of Employee Representation (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 95-105; Lloyd Ulman, "Who Wanted Collective Bargaining in the First Place?" Contemporary Policy Issues 5 (1987): 1-11; Howell Harris, The Right to Manage: Industrial Relations Policies of American Business in the 1940s (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 15-37.
154. Sanford Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited: The Importance of Management," in Sanford Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 174-86, 191-95; Joel Rogers, "Reforming U.S. Labor Relations," in Matthew Finkin, ed., The Legal Future of Employee Representation (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 95-105; Lloyd Ulman, "Who Wanted Collective Bargaining in the First Place?" Contemporary Policy Issues 5 (1987): 1-11; Howell Harris, The Right to Manage: Industrial Relations Policies of American Business in the 1940s (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 15-37.
155. Sanford Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited: The Importance of Management," in Sanford Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on American Employers (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 174-86, 191-95; Joel Rogers, "Reforming U.S. Labor Relations," in Matthew Finkin, ed., The Legal Future of Employee Representation (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), 95-105; Lloyd Ulman, "Who Wanted Collective Bargaining in the First Place?" Contemporary Policy Issues 5 (1987): 1-11; Howell Harris, The Right to Manage: Industrial Relations Policies of American Business in the 1940s (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 15-37.
156. On the Democrats and labor, see Frances Fox Piven, "Structural Constraints and Political Development: The Case of the American Democratic Party," in Frances Fox Piven, ed., Labor Parties in Postindustrial Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 251-54; Joel Rogers and Thomas Ferguson, Right Turn: The Decline of the Democrats and the Future of American Politics (New York: Hill and Wang, 1986), 40-61; Mike Davis, Prisoners of the American Dream (New York: Verso, 1986), 52-101 ; William Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics: Labor Politics in American Life (New York: Plenum, 1995). Fraser uses the "aroma of futility" to characterize Sidney Hillmans's view of labor party efforts in New York (Labor Will Rule, 355-72, quote at 355).
157. On the Democrats and labor, see Frances Fox Piven, "Structural Constraints and Political Development: The Case of the American Democratic Party," in Frances Fox Piven, ed., Labor Parties in Postindustrial Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 251-54; Joel Rogers and Thomas Ferguson, Right Turn: The Decline of the Democrats and the Future of American Politics (New York: Hill and Wang, 1986), 40-61; Mike Davis, Prisoners of the American Dream (New York: Verso, 1986), 52-101 ; William Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics: Labor Politics in American Life (New York: Plenum, 1995). Fraser uses the "aroma of futility" to characterize Sidney Hillmans's view of labor party efforts in New York (Labor Will Rule, 355-72, quote at 355).
158. On the Democrats and labor, see Frances Fox Piven, "Structural Constraints and Political Development: The Case of the American Democratic Party," in Frances Fox Piven, ed., Labor Parties in Postindustrial Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 251-54; Joel Rogers and Thomas Ferguson, Right Turn: The Decline of the Democrats and the Future of American Politics (New York: Hill and Wang, 1986), 40-61; Mike Davis, Prisoners of the American Dream (New York: Verso, 1986), 52-101 ; William Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics: Labor Politics in American Life (New York: Plenum, 1995). Fraser uses the "aroma of futility" to characterize Sidney Hillmans's view of labor party efforts in New York (Labor Will Rule, 355-72, quote at 355).
159. On the Democrats and labor, see Frances Fox Piven, "Structural Constraints and Political Development: The Case of the American Democratic Party," in Frances Fox Piven, ed., Labor Parties in Postindustrial Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 251-54; Joel Rogers and Thomas Ferguson, Right Turn: The Decline of the Democrats and the Future of American Politics (New York: Hill and Wang, 1986), 40-61; Mike Davis, Prisoners of the American Dream (New York: Verso, 1986), 52-101 ; William Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics: Labor Politics in American Life (New York: Plenum, 1995). Fraser uses the "aroma of futility" to characterize Sidney Hillmans's view of labor party efforts in New York (Labor Will Rule, 355-72, quote at 355).
160. On the Democrats and labor, see Frances Fox Piven, "Structural Constraints and Political Development: The Case of the American Democratic Party," in Frances Fox Piven, ed., Labor Parties in Postindustrial Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 251-54; Joel Rogers and Thomas Ferguson, Right Turn: The Decline of the Democrats and the Future of American Politics (New York: Hill and Wang, 1986), 40-61; Mike Davis, Prisoners of the American Dream (New York: Verso, 1986), 52-101 ; William Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics: Labor Politics in American Life (New York: Plenum, 1995). Fraser uses the "aroma of futility" to characterize Sidney Hillmans's view of labor party efforts in New York (Labor Will Rule, 355-72, quote at 355).
161. Richard Schneirov, "Rethinking the Relation of Labor to the Politics of Urban Social Reform in Late-Nineteenth-Century America: The Case of Chicago," International Labor and Working Class History 46 (1994): 93-108; Samuel Hays, "The Politics of Reform in Municipal Governments in the Progressive Era," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (1965): 157-69.
162. Richard Schneirov, "Rethinking the Relation of Labor to the Politics of Urban Social Reform in Late-Nineteenth-Century America: The Case of Chicago," International Labor and Working Class History 46 (1994): 93-108; Samuel Hays, "The Politics of Reform in Municipal Governments in the Progressive Era," Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (1965): 157-69.
163. See Ansell and Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite!" 1-43; Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City," 28-48; Katznelson, City Trenches.
164. See Ansell and Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite!" 1-43; Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City," 28-48; Katznelson, City Trenches.
165. See Ansell and Burris, "Bosses of the City Unite!" 1-43; Bucki, "Workers and Politics in the Immigrant City," 28-48; Katznelson, City Trenches.
166. Eric Leif Davin, "The Very Last Hurrah? The Defeat of the Labor Party Idea, 1934-36," in We Are All Leaders, 117-71; Davin and Lynd, "Picket Line and Ballot Box," 43-63; Fraser, Labor Will Rule, 352-72.
167. Eric Leif Davin, "The Very Last Hurrah? The Defeat of the Labor Party Idea, 1934-36," in We Are All Leaders, 117-71; Davin and Lynd, "Picket Line and Ballot Box," 43-63; Fraser, Labor Will Rule, 352-72.
168. Eric Leif Davin, "The Very Last Hurrah? The Defeat of the Labor Party Idea, 1934-36," in We Are All Leaders, 117-71; Davin and Lynd, "Picket Line and Ballot Box," 43-63; Fraser, Labor Will Rule, 352-72.
169. Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 183-84, 200; Frederick Ryan, The Labor Movement in San Diego (San Diego, CA: Bureau of Business and Economic Research, San Diego State College, 1959), 53-83, 128-29; Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics, 114; Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee, 164-66; Daryl Holter, "Sources of CIO Success: The New Deal Years in Milwaukee," Labor History 29, no. 2 (1988): 199-224; Louis Perry and Richard Perry, A History of the Los Angeles Labor Movement, 1911-1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), 270-77, 430-31.
170. Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 183-84, 200; Frederick Ryan, The Labor Movement in San Diego (San Diego, CA: Bureau of Business and Economic Research, San Diego State College, 1959), 53-83, 128-29; Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics, 114; Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee, 164-66; Daryl Holter, "Sources of CIO Success: The New Deal Years in Milwaukee," Labor History 29, no. 2 (1988): 199-224; Louis Perry and Richard Perry, A History of the Los Angeles Labor Movement, 1911-1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), 270-77, 430-31.
171. Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 183-84, 200; Frederick Ryan, The Labor Movement in San Diego (San Diego, CA: Bureau of Business and Economic Research, San Diego State College, 1959), 53-83, 128-29; Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics, 114; Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee, 164-66; Daryl Holter, "Sources of CIO Success: The New Deal Years in Milwaukee," Labor History 29, no. 2 (1988): 199-224; Louis Perry and Richard Perry, A History of the Los Angeles Labor Movement, 1911-1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), 270-77, 430-31.
172. Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 183-84, 200; Frederick Ryan, The Labor Movement in San Diego (San Diego, CA: Bureau of Business and Economic Research, San Diego State College, 1959), 53-83, 128-29; Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics, 114; Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee, 164-66; Daryl Holter, "Sources of CIO Success: The New Deal Years in Milwaukee," Labor History 29, no. 2 (1988): 199-224; Louis Perry and Richard Perry, A History of the Los Angeles Labor Movement, 1911-1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), 270-77, 430-31.
173. Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 183-84, 200; Frederick Ryan, The Labor Movement in San Diego (San Diego, CA: Bureau of Business and Economic Research, San Diego State College, 1959), 53-83, 128-29; Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics, 114; Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee, 164-66; Daryl Holter, "Sources of CIO Success: The New Deal Years in Milwaukee," Labor History 29, no. 2 (1988): 199-224; Louis Perry and Richard Perry, A History of the Los Angeles Labor Movement, 1911-1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), 270-77, 430-31.
174. Newell, Chicago and the Labor Movement, 183-84, 200; Frederick Ryan, The Labor Movement in San Diego (San Diego, CA: Bureau of Business and Economic Research, San Diego State College, 1959), 53-83, 128-29; Form, Segmented Labor, Fractured Politics, 114; Gavett, Development of the Labor Movement in Milwaukee, 164-66; Daryl Holter, "Sources of CIO Success: The New Deal Years in Milwaukee," Labor History 29, no. 2 (1988): 199-224; Louis Perry and Richard Perry, A History of the Los Angeles Labor Movement, 1911-1941 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), 270-77, 430-31.
175. Fernando Gapasin and Howard Wial, "The Role of Central Labor Councils in Union Organizing in the 1990s," in Kate Bronfenbrenner, Sheldon Friedman, Richard Hurd, Ronald Seeber, and Rudolph Oswald, eds., Organizing to Win: New Research on Union Strategies (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 54-55.
176. Thomas Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), chap. 4; Benson, Counter Cultures, 209.
177. Thomas Sugrue, Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), chap. 4; Benson, Counter Cultures, 209.
178. On race and the CIO, see Bruce Nelson, "Class, Race and Democracy in the CIO," International Review of Social History 41, no. 3 (1996) and the responses by Faue and Sugrue; Rick Halpern, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-54 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight"; Michael Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
179. On race and the CIO, see Bruce Nelson, "Class, Race and Democracy in the CIO," International Review of Social History 41, no. 3 (1996) and the responses by Faue and Sugrue; Rick Halpern, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-54 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight"; Michael Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
180. On race and the CIO, see Bruce Nelson, "Class, Race and Democracy in the CIO," International Review of Social History 41, no. 3 (1996) and the responses by Faue and Sugrue; Rick Halpern, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-54 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight"; Michael Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
181. On race and the CIO, see Bruce Nelson, "Class, Race and Democracy in the CIO," International Review of Social History 41, no. 3 (1996) and the responses by Faue and Sugrue; Rick Halpern, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-54 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997); Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight"; Michael Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
182. Roger Waldinge, Chris Erickson, Ruth Milkman, Daniel Mitchell, Abel Valenzuela, Kent Wong, and Maurice Zeitlin, "Helots No More: A Case Study of the Justice for Janitors Campaign in Los Angeles," in Organizing to Win, 102-19; Janice Fine and Richard Locke, "Unions Get Smart: New Tactics for a New Labor Movement," Dollars and Sense 207 (September/October 1996): 16-18; Steve Early and Larry Cohen, "Jobs with Justice: Mobilizing Labor-Community Coalitions," Workingusa 1, no. 4 (1997): 49-57; Steve Early and Larry Cohen, "Jobs with Justice: Building a Broad-Based Movement for Workers' Rights," Social Policy 25, no. 2 (1994): 6-18.
183. Roger Waldinge, Chris Erickson, Ruth Milkman, Daniel Mitchell, Abel Valenzuela, Kent Wong, and Maurice Zeitlin, "Helots No More: A Case Study of the Justice for Janitors Campaign in Los Angeles," in Organizing to Win, 102-19; Janice Fine and Richard Locke, "Unions Get Smart: New Tactics for a New Labor Movement," Dollars and Sense 207 (September/October 1996): 16-18; Steve Early and Larry Cohen, "Jobs with Justice: Mobilizing Labor-Community Coalitions," Workingusa 1, no. 4 (1997): 49-57; Steve Early and Larry Cohen, "Jobs with Justice: Building a Broad-Based Movement for Workers' Rights," Social Policy 25, no. 2 (1994): 6-18.
184. Roger Waldinge, Chris Erickson, Ruth Milkman, Daniel Mitchell, Abel Valenzuela, Kent Wong, and Maurice Zeitlin, "Helots No More: A Case Study of the Justice for Janitors Campaign in Los Angeles," in Organizing to Win, 102-19; Janice Fine and Richard Locke, "Unions Get Smart: New Tactics for a New Labor Movement," Dollars and Sense 207 (September/October 1996): 16-18; Steve Early and Larry Cohen, "Jobs with Justice: Mobilizing Labor-Community Coalitions," Workingusa 1, no. 4 (1997): 49-57; Steve Early and Larry Cohen, "Jobs with Justice: Building a Broad-Based Movement for Workers' Rights," Social Policy 25, no. 2 (1994): 6-18.
185. Roger Waldinge, Chris Erickson, Ruth Milkman, Daniel Mitchell, Abel Valenzuela, Kent Wong, and Maurice Zeitlin, "Helots No More: A Case Study of the Justice for Janitors Campaign in Los Angeles," in Organizing to Win, 102-19; Janice Fine and Richard Locke, "Unions Get Smart: New Tactics for a New Labor Movement," Dollars and Sense 207 (September/October 1996): 16-18; Steve Early and Larry Cohen, "Jobs with Justice: Mobilizing Labor-Community Coalitions," Workingusa 1, no. 4 (1997): 49-57; Steve Early and Larry Cohen, "Jobs with Justice: Building a Broad-Based Movement for Workers' Rights," Social Policy 25, no. 2 (1994): 6-18.
186. See Kenneth Durr, "When Southern Politics Came North: The Roots of White Working-Class Conservatism in Baltimore, 1940-64," Labor History 37, no. 3 (1996): 309-31; John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century Urban North (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Thomas Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964," Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (1995): 551-86; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 82-84 and passim.
187. See Kenneth Durr, "When Southern Politics Came North: The Roots of White Working-Class Conservatism in Baltimore, 1940-64," Labor History 37, no. 3 (1996): 309-31; John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century Urban North (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Thomas Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964," Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (1995): 551-86; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 82-84 and passim.
188. See Kenneth Durr, "When Southern Politics Came North: The Roots of White Working-Class Conservatism in Baltimore, 1940-64," Labor History 37, no. 3 (1996): 309-31; John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century Urban North (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Thomas Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964," Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (1995): 551-86; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 82-84 and passim.
189. See Kenneth Durr, "When Southern Politics Came North: The Roots of White Working-Class Conservatism in Baltimore, 1940-64," Labor History 37, no. 3 (1996): 309-31; John T. McGreevy, Parish Boundaries: The Catholic Encounter with Race in the Twentieth-Century Urban North (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Thomas Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964," Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (1995): 551-86; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 82-84 and passim.
190. See Steve Rosswurm, ed., The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992); Elizabeth Fones-Wolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on labor and Liberalism, 1945-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 53-55; David Oshinsky, "Labor's Cold War: The CIO and the Communists," in Robert Griffith and Athan Theoharis, eds., The Specter: Original Essays on the Cold War and The Origins of McCarthyism (New York: New Viewpoints, 1974), 116-51.
191. See Steve Rosswurm, ed., The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992); Elizabeth Fones-Wolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on labor and Liberalism, 1945-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 53-55; David Oshinsky, "Labor's Cold War: The CIO and the Communists," in Robert Griffith and Athan Theoharis, eds., The Specter: Original Essays on the Cold War and The Origins of McCarthyism (New York: New Viewpoints, 1974), 116-51.
192. See Steve Rosswurm, ed., The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992); Elizabeth Fones-Wolf, Selling Free Enterprise: The Business Assault on labor and Liberalism, 1945-1960 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 53-55; David Oshinsky, "Labor's Cold War: The CIO and the Communists," in Robert Griffith and Athan Theoharis, eds., The Specter: Original Essays on the Cold War and The Origins of McCarthyism (New York: New Viewpoints, 1974), 116-51.
193. Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-1933," Radical America 10, no. 4 (July-August 1976): 37-56; Peter Rachleff, "Organizing 'Wall to Wall,'" 53-61; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight," 68-73, 85-86.
194. Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-1933," Radical America 10, no. 4 (July-August 1976): 37-56; Peter Rachleff, "Organizing 'Wall to Wall,'" 53-61; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight," 68-73, 85-86.
195. Roy Rosenzweig, "Organizing the Unemployed: The Early Years of the Great Depression, 1929-1933," Radical America 10, no. 4 (July-August 1976): 37-56; Peter Rachleff, "Organizing 'Wall to Wall,'" 53-61; Horowitz, "Negro and White, Unite and Fight," 68-73, 85-86.
196. On the TWU, see Joshua Freeman, In Transit: The Transport Workers Union in New York City, 1933-1966 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 286-317; Alex Lichtenstein, "Putting Labor's House in Order: The Transport Workers Union and Labor Anti-Communism in Miami during the 1940s," Labor History 39, no. 1 (1998): 7-23.
197. On the TWU, see Joshua Freeman, In Transit: The Transport Workers Union in New York City, 1933-1966 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 286-317; Alex Lichtenstein, "Putting Labor's House in Order: The Transport Workers Union and Labor Anti-Communism in Miami during the 1940s," Labor History 39, no. 1 (1998): 7-23.
198. This assessment follows Rogers, "Reforming U.S. Labor Relations," 23-28.