Class, race and democracy in the CIO: The "new" labor history meets the "wages of whiteness"

International Review of Social History

Volumn 41, Issue 3, 1996, Pages 351-374

  Nelson, Bruce ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0030328552     PISSN: 00208590     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0020859000114051     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
2. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
3. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
4. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
5. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
6. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
7. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
8. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
9. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
10. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
11. E.P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York, 1963). For anthologies of Gutman's writings, see Herbert G. Gutman, Work, Culture, and Society in Industrializing America: Essays in American Working-Class and Social History (New York, 1976); idem. Power and Culture: Essays on the American Working Class, ed. Ira Berlin (New York, 1987). Important examples of the new scholarship on black workers include Joe William Trotter. Jr. Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1914-45 (Urbana, 1985); idem, Coal, Class, and Color: Blacks in Southern West Virginia, 1915-32 (Urbana, 1990); Earl Lewis, In Their Own Interests: Race, Class, and Power in Twentieth-Century Norfolk, Virginia (Berkeley, 1991); Eric Arnesen, Waterfront Workers of New Orleans: Race, Class, and Politics, 1863-1923 (New York, 1991); idem, "Following the Color Line of Labor: Black Workers and the Labor Movement before 1930", Radical History Review, 55 (1993), pp. 43-87; Robin D.G. Kelley, "'We Are Not What We Seem': Rethinking Black Working-Class Opposition in the Jim Crow South", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), pp. 75-112; idem. Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); Tera W. Hunter, To "Joy My Freedom": Women Workers' Odyssey of Hope and Struggle in the Postwar Urban South (Cambridge, forthcoming).
12. Bruce Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront: Seamen, Longshoremen, and Unionism in the 1930s (Urbana, 1988), pp. 3-4.
13. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, pp. 9-13; Oliver Cromwell Cox, Caste, Class, and Race: A Study in Social Dynamics (1948; rpt. New York, 1970), p. 470;
14. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, pp. 9-13; Oliver Cromwell Cox, Caste, Class, and Race: A Study in Social Dynamics (1948; rpt. New York, 1970), p. 470;
15. David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (London, 1991), p. 9.
16. Herbert Hill, "Race, Ethnicity and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 31-82; idem, "Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record", in Herbert Hill and James E. Jones, Jr (eds), Race in America: The Struggle for Equality (Madison, 1993), pp. 263-341; Robert J. Norrell, "Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham. Alabama", Journal of American History, 73 (1986), pp. 669-694; idem, "Labor at the Ballot Box: Alabama Politics from the New Deal to the Dixiecrat Movement", Journal of Southern History, 57 (1991), pp. 201-234; David Roediger, "Labor in White Skin: Race and Working Class History", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinkler (eds), Reshaping the US Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 287-308; Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (London, 1990), esp. pp. 293-319. For the work of Kelley, Lewis and Trotter, see the citations in note 1 above. See also Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633; Henry M. McKiven, Jr, Iron and Steel: Class, Race, and Community in Birmingham, Alabama, 1875-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995).
17. Herbert Hill, "Race, Ethnicity and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 31-82; idem, "Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record", in Herbert Hill and James E. Jones, Jr (eds), Race in America: The Struggle for Equality (Madison, 1993), pp. 263-341; Robert J. Norrell, "Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham. Alabama", Journal of American History, 73 (1986), pp. 669-694; idem, "Labor at the Ballot Box: Alabama Politics from the New Deal to the Dixiecrat Movement", Journal of Southern History, 57 (1991), pp. 201-234; David Roediger, "Labor in White Skin: Race and Working Class History", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinkler (eds), Reshaping the US Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 287-308; Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (London, 1990), esp. pp. 293-319. For the work of Kelley, Lewis and Trotter, see the citations in note 1 above. See also Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633; Henry M. McKiven, Jr, Iron and Steel: Class, Race, and Community in Birmingham, Alabama, 1875-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995).
18. Herbert Hill, "Race, Ethnicity and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 31-82; idem, "Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record", in Herbert Hill and James E. Jones, Jr (eds), Race in America: The Struggle for Equality (Madison, 1993), pp. 263-341; Robert J. Norrell, "Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham. Alabama", Journal of American History, 73 (1986), pp. 669-694; idem, "Labor at the Ballot Box: Alabama Politics from the New Deal to the Dixiecrat Movement", Journal of Southern History, 57 (1991), pp. 201-234; David Roediger, "Labor in White Skin: Race and Working Class History", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinkler (eds), Reshaping the US Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 287-308; Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (London, 1990), esp. pp. 293-319. For the work of Kelley, Lewis and Trotter, see the citations in note 1 above. See also Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633; Henry M. McKiven, Jr, Iron and Steel: Class, Race, and Community in Birmingham, Alabama, 1875-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995).
19. Herbert Hill, "Race, Ethnicity and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 31-82; idem, "Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record", in Herbert Hill and James E. Jones, Jr (eds), Race in America: The Struggle for Equality (Madison, 1993), pp. 263-341; Robert J. Norrell, "Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham. Alabama", Journal of American History, 73 (1986), pp. 669-694; idem, "Labor at the Ballot Box: Alabama Politics from the New Deal to the Dixiecrat Movement", Journal of Southern History, 57 (1991), pp. 201-234; David Roediger, "Labor in White Skin: Race and Working Class History", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinkler (eds), Reshaping the US Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 287-308; Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (London, 1990), esp. pp. 293-319. For the work of Kelley, Lewis and Trotter, see the citations in note 1 above. See also Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633; Henry M. McKiven, Jr, Iron and Steel: Class, Race, and Community in Birmingham, Alabama, 1875-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995).
20. Herbert Hill, "Race, Ethnicity and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 31-82; idem, "Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record", in Herbert Hill and James E. Jones, Jr (eds), Race in America: The Struggle for Equality (Madison, 1993), pp. 263-341; Robert J. Norrell, "Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham. Alabama", Journal of American History, 73 (1986), pp. 669-694; idem, "Labor at the Ballot Box: Alabama Politics from the New Deal to the Dixiecrat Movement", Journal of Southern History, 57 (1991), pp. 201-234; David Roediger, "Labor in White Skin: Race and Working Class History", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinkler (eds), Reshaping the US Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 287-308; Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (London, 1990), esp. pp. 293-319. For the work of Kelley, Lewis and Trotter, see the citations in note 1 above. See also Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633; Henry M. McKiven, Jr, Iron and Steel: Class, Race, and Community in Birmingham, Alabama, 1875-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995).
21. Herbert Hill, "Race, Ethnicity and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 31-82; idem, "Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record", in Herbert Hill and James E. Jones, Jr (eds), Race in America: The Struggle for Equality (Madison, 1993), pp. 263-341; Robert J. Norrell, "Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham. Alabama", Journal of American History, 73 (1986), pp. 669-694; idem, "Labor at the Ballot Box: Alabama Politics from the New Deal to the Dixiecrat Movement", Journal of Southern History, 57 (1991), pp. 201-234; David Roediger, "Labor in White Skin: Race and Working Class History", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinkler (eds), Reshaping the US Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 287-308; Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (London, 1990), esp. pp. 293-319. For the work of Kelley, Lewis and Trotter, see the citations in note 1 above. See also Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633; Henry M. McKiven, Jr, Iron and Steel: Class, Race, and Community in Birmingham, Alabama, 1875-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995).
22. Herbert Hill, "Race, Ethnicity and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 31-82; idem, "Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record", in Herbert Hill and James E. Jones, Jr (eds), Race in America: The Struggle for Equality (Madison, 1993), pp. 263-341; Robert J. Norrell, "Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham. Alabama", Journal of American History, 73 (1986), pp. 669-694; idem, "Labor at the Ballot Box: Alabama Politics from the New Deal to the Dixiecrat Movement", Journal of Southern History, 57 (1991), pp. 201-234; David Roediger, "Labor in White Skin: Race and Working Class History", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinkler (eds), Reshaping the US Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 287-308; Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (London, 1990), esp. pp. 293-319. For the work of Kelley, Lewis and Trotter, see the citations in note 1 above. See also Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633; Henry M. McKiven, Jr, Iron and Steel: Class, Race, and Community in Birmingham, Alabama, 1875-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995).
23. Herbert Hill, "Race, Ethnicity and Organized Labor: The Opposition to Affirmative Action", New Politics, new ser., 1 (1987), pp. 31-82; idem, "Black Workers, Organized Labor, and Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act: Legislative History and Litigation Record", in Herbert Hill and James E. Jones, Jr (eds), Race in America: The Struggle for Equality (Madison, 1993), pp. 263-341; Robert J. Norrell, "Caste in Steel: Jim Crow Careers in Birmingham. Alabama", Journal of American History, 73 (1986), pp. 669-694; idem, "Labor at the Ballot Box: Alabama Politics from the New Deal to the Dixiecrat Movement", Journal of Southern History, 57 (1991), pp. 201-234; David Roediger, "Labor in White Skin: Race and Working Class History", in Mike Davis and Michael Sprinkler (eds), Reshaping the US Left: Popular Struggles in the 1980s (London, 1988), pp. 287-308; Alexander Saxton, The Rise and Fall of the White Republic: Class Politics and Mass Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (London, 1990), esp. pp. 293-319. For the work of Kelley, Lewis and Trotter, see the citations in note 1 above. See also Eric Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down': The Race Question and the American Railroad Brotherhoods, 1880-1920", American Historical Review, 99 (1994), pp. 1601-1633; Henry M. McKiven, Jr, Iron and Steel: Class, Race, and Community in Birmingham, Alabama, 1875-1920 (Chapel Hill, 1995).
24. Michael Goldfield, "Race and the CIO: Reply to Critics", International Labor and Working-Class History, 46 (1994), p. 148.
25. Nelson Lichtenstein, "Life at the Rouge: A Cycle of Workers' Control", in Charles Stephenson and Robert Asher (eds), Life and Labor: Dimensions of Working-Class History (Albany, 1986), p. 245; Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 335, 337.
26. Nelson Lichtenstein, "Life at the Rouge: A Cycle of Workers' Control", in Charles Stephenson and Robert Asher (eds), Life and Labor: Dimensions of Working-Class History (Albany, 1986), p. 245; Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 335, 337.
27. Nelson Lichtenstein, "From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era", in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (eds), The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1989), pp. 122-152; Ira Katznelson, "Was the Great Society a Lost Opportunity?", in ibid., pp. 185-211; Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff and Theda Skocpol (eds), The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, 1988). On the failure of Operation Dixie, see Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, 1988); Michael Honey and Samuel Barkin, "'Operation Dixie': Two Points of View", Labor History, 31 (1990), pp. 373-385; and the excellent summation in Robert H. Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, 1995), pp. 227-241.
28. Nelson Lichtenstein, "From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era", in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (eds), The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1989), pp. 122-152; Ira Katznelson, "Was the Great Society a Lost Opportunity?", in ibid., pp. 185-211; Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff and Theda Skocpol (eds), The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, 1988). On the failure of Operation Dixie, see Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, 1988); Michael Honey and Samuel Barkin, "'Operation Dixie': Two Points of View", Labor History, 31 (1990), pp. 373-385; and the excellent summation in Robert H. Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, 1995), pp. 227-241.
29. Nelson Lichtenstein, "From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era", in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (eds), The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1989), pp. 122-152; Ira Katznelson, "Was the Great Society a Lost Opportunity?", in ibid., pp. 185-211; Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff and Theda Skocpol (eds), The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, 1988). On the failure of Operation Dixie, see Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, 1988); Michael Honey and Samuel Barkin, "'Operation Dixie': Two Points of View", Labor History, 31 (1990), pp. 373-385; and the excellent summation in Robert H. Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, 1995), pp. 227-241.
30. Nelson Lichtenstein, "From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era", in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (eds), The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1989), pp. 122-152; Ira Katznelson, "Was the Great Society a Lost Opportunity?", in ibid., pp. 185-211; Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff and Theda Skocpol (eds), The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, 1988). On the failure of Operation Dixie, see Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, 1988); Michael Honey and Samuel Barkin, "'Operation Dixie': Two Points of View", Labor History, 31 (1990), pp. 373-385; and the excellent summation in Robert H. Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, 1995), pp. 227-241.
31. Nelson Lichtenstein, "From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era", in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (eds), The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1989), pp. 122-152; Ira Katznelson, "Was the Great Society a Lost Opportunity?", in ibid., pp. 185-211; Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff and Theda Skocpol (eds), The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, 1988). On the failure of Operation Dixie, see Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, 1988); Michael Honey and Samuel Barkin, "'Operation Dixie': Two Points of View", Labor History, 31 (1990), pp. 373-385; and the excellent summation in Robert H. Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, 1995), pp. 227-241.
32. Nelson Lichtenstein, "From Corporatism to Collective Bargaining: Organized Labor and the Eclipse of Social Democracy in the Postwar Era", in Steve Fraser and Gary Gerstle (eds), The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, 1930-1980 (Princeton, 1989), pp. 122-152; Ira Katznelson, "Was the Great Society a Lost Opportunity?", in ibid., pp. 185-211; Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff and Theda Skocpol (eds), The Politics of Social Policy in the United States (Princeton, 1988). On the failure of Operation Dixie, see Barbara S. Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor: Operation Dixie and the Defeat of the CIO (Philadelphia, 1988); Michael Honey and Samuel Barkin, "'Operation Dixie': Two Points of View", Labor History, 31 (1990), pp. 373-385; and the excellent summation in Robert H. Zieger, The CIO, 1935-1955 (Chapel Hill, 1995), pp. 227-241.
33. Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor. Rad'cals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811; Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993), pp. 213, 227, 230, 283.
34. Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor. Rad'cals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement", Journal of American History, 75 (1988), pp. 786-811; Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993), pp. 213, 227, 230, 283.
35. Ibid., pp. 83, 155, 163-164, 171, 179-184, 226-227; Bruce Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile during World War II", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), p. 976; Philip Taft, Organizing Dixie: Alabama Workers in the Industrial Era (Westport, 1981), p. 106; Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor, p. 79; Norrell, "Caste in Steel", p. 680.
36. Ibid., pp. 83, 155, 163-164, 171, 179-184, 226-227; Bruce Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile during World War II", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), p. 976; Philip Taft, Organizing Dixie: Alabama Workers in the Industrial Era (Westport, 1981), p. 106; Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor, p. 79; Norrell, "Caste in Steel", p. 680.
37. Ibid., pp. 83, 155, 163-164, 171, 179-184, 226-227; Bruce Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile during World War II", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), p. 976; Philip Taft, Organizing Dixie: Alabama Workers in the Industrial Era (Westport, 1981), p. 106; Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor, p. 79; Norrell, "Caste in Steel", p. 680.
38. Ibid., pp. 83, 155, 163-164, 171, 179-184, 226-227; Bruce Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile during World War II", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), p. 976; Philip Taft, Organizing Dixie: Alabama Workers in the Industrial Era (Westport, 1981), p. 106; Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor, p. 79; Norrell, "Caste in Steel", p. 680.
39. Ibid., pp. 83, 155, 163-164, 171, 179-184, 226-227; Bruce Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile during World War II", Journal of American History, 80 (1993), p. 976; Philip Taft, Organizing Dixie: Alabama Workers in the Industrial Era (Westport, 1981), p. 106; Griffith, The Crisis of American Labor, p. 79; Norrell, "Caste in Steel", p. 680.
40. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights, pp. 201, 280; Norrell, "Caste in Steel", p. 677.
41. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights, pp. 201, 280; Norrell, "Caste in Steel", p. 677.
42. In a similar critique of Honey's argument, George Fredrickson concludes that "the effort to create a unified black-and-white labor movement in the South was doomed from the start, and anti-communism was simply a convenient vehicle for the expression of the deeply rooted white supremacist convictions that white workers shared with their employers". George M. Fredrickson, "Red, Black, and White", New York Review of Books, 8 June 1995, pp. 33-35, 38, quoted on p. 35.
43. Karl Korstad, "Black and White Together: Organizing in the South with the Food, Tobacco, Agricultural & Allied Workers Union (FTA-CIO), 1946-1952", in Steve Rosswurm (ed.), The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, 1992), pp. 69-94, quoted on pp. 88, 94. See also Alan Draper, Conflict of Interests: Organized Labor and the Civil Rights Movement in the South, 1954-1968 (Ithaca, 1994), p. 12.
44. Karl Korstad, "Black and White Together: Organizing in the South with the Food, Tobacco, Agricultural & Allied Workers Union (FTA-CIO), 1946-1952", in Steve Rosswurm (ed.), The CIO's Left-Led Unions (New Brunswick, 1992), pp. 69-94, quoted on pp. 88, 94. See also Alan Draper, Conflict of Interests: Organized Labor and the Civil Rights Movement in the South, 1954-1968 (Ithaca, 1994), p. 12.
45. David T. Wellman, Portraits of White Racism, 2nd ed. (New York, 1993), p. 210. On the character and limits of the northern white consensus on behalf of racial change in the mid-1960s, see Jack M. Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement (Bloomington, 1987), pp. 155-213; and Gary Orfield, "Race and the Liberal Agenda: The Loss of the Integrationist Dream, 1965-1974", in Weir et al., The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, pp. 313-355.
46. David T. Wellman, Portraits of White Racism, 2nd ed. (New York, 1993), p. 210. On the character and limits of the northern white consensus on behalf of racial change in the mid-1960s, see Jack M. Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement (Bloomington, 1987), pp. 155-213; and Gary Orfield, "Race and the Liberal Agenda: The Loss of the Integrationist Dream, 1965-1974", in Weir et al., The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, pp. 313-355.
47. David T. Wellman, Portraits of White Racism, 2nd ed. (New York, 1993), p. 210. On the character and limits of the northern white consensus on behalf of racial change in the mid-1960s, see Jack M. Bloom, Class, Race, and the Civil Rights Movement (Bloomington, 1987), pp. 155-213; and Gary Orfield, "Race and the Liberal Agenda: The Loss of the Integrationist Dream, 1965-1974", in Weir et al., The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, pp. 313-355.
48. Nelson, Workers on the Waterfront; Howard Kimeldorf, Reds or Rackets? The Making of Radical and Conservative Unions on the Waterfront (Berkeley, 1988).
49. Nancy Quam-Wickham, "Who Controls the Hiring Hall? The Struggle for Job Control in the ILWU during World War II", in Rosswurm, The CIO's Left-Led Unions, p. 67. I have expanded on this theme at length in "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", Working Paper No. 2, Occasional Paper Series, Center for Labor Studies, University of Washington (Seattle, 1995); and at greater length in "The 'Lords of the Docks' Reconsidered: Race Relations among West Coast Longshoremen, 1933-1961", in Calvin Winslow (ed.), Essays in Waterfront Labor History (Urbana, forthcoming).
50. Nancy Quam-Wickham, "Who Controls the Hiring Hall? The Struggle for Job Control in the ILWU during World War II", in Rosswurm, The CIO's Left-Led Unions, p. 67. I have expanded on this theme at length in "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", Working Paper No. 2, Occasional Paper Series, Center for Labor Studies, University of Washington (Seattle, 1995); and at greater length in "The 'Lords of the Docks' Reconsidered: Race Relations among West Coast Longshoremen, 1933-1961", in Calvin Winslow (ed.), Essays in Waterfront Labor History (Urbana, forthcoming).
51. Nancy Quam-Wickham, "Who Controls the Hiring Hall? The Struggle for Job Control in the ILWU during World War II", in Rosswurm, The CIO's Left-Led Unions, p. 67. I have expanded on this theme at length in "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", Working Paper No. 2, Occasional Paper Series, Center for Labor Studies, University of Washington (Seattle, 1995); and at greater length in "The 'Lords of the Docks' Reconsidered: Race Relations among West Coast Longshoremen, 1933-1961", in Calvin Winslow (ed.), Essays in Waterfront Labor History (Urbana, forthcoming).
52. Nelson, "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", p. 17. On the TWU, see Joshua B. Freeman, In Transit: The Transport Workers Union in New York City, 1933-1966 (New York, 1989). pp. 26-27, 30, 154-156; and August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, "Communist Unions and the Black Community: the Case of the Transport Workers Union, 1934-1944", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 165-197. Meier and Rudwick conclude, "The TWU's early history demonstrates that the response of a Communist-dominated union leadership to race discrimination in the job market was anything but simple. That leadership, regardless of its ideals, was dependent for survival in office on a white membership characterized by pervasive prejudices": ibid., p. 195. See also Mar Naison, Communists in Harlem during the Depression (Urbana, 1983), p. 265; and Alex Lichtenstein, "Labor Radicalism, Race Relations, and Anticommunism in Miami During the 1940s" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, DC, 30 March 1995), a study of the TWU's largest local outside New York City.
53. Nelson, "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", p. 17. On the TWU, see Joshua B. Freeman, In Transit: The Transport Workers Union in New York City, 1933-1966 (New York, 1989). pp. 26-27, 30, 154-156; and August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, "Communist Unions and the Black Community: the Case of the Transport Workers Union, 1934-1944", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 165-197. Meier and Rudwick conclude, "The TWU's early history demonstrates that the response of a Communist-dominated union leadership to race discrimination in the job market was anything but simple. That leadership, regardless of its ideals, was dependent for survival in office on a white membership characterized by pervasive prejudices": ibid., p. 195. See also Mar Naison, Communists in Harlem during the Depression (Urbana, 1983), p. 265; and Alex Lichtenstein, "Labor Radicalism, Race Relations, and Anticommunism in Miami During the 1940s" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, DC, 30 March 1995), a study of the TWU's largest local outside New York City.
54. Nelson, "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", p. 17. On the TWU, see Joshua B. Freeman, In Transit: The Transport Workers Union in New York City, 1933-1966 (New York, 1989). pp. 26-27, 30, 154-156; and August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, "Communist Unions and the Black Community: the Case of the Transport Workers Union, 1934-1944", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 165-197. Meier and Rudwick conclude, "The TWU's early history demonstrates that the response of a Communist-dominated union leadership to race discrimination in the job market was anything but simple. That leadership, regardless of its ideals, was dependent for survival in office on a white membership characterized by pervasive prejudices": ibid., p. 195. See also Mar Naison, Communists in Harlem during the Depression (Urbana, 1983), p. 265; and Alex Lichtenstein, "Labor Radicalism, Race Relations, and Anticommunism in Miami During the 1940s" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, DC, 30 March 1995), a study of the TWU's largest local outside New York City.
55. Nelson, "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", p. 17. On the TWU, see Joshua B. Freeman, In Transit: The Transport Workers Union in New York City, 1933-1966 (New York, 1989). pp. 26-27, 30, 154-156; and August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, "Communist Unions and the Black Community: the Case of the Transport Workers Union, 1934-1944", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 165-197. Meier and Rudwick conclude, "The TWU's early history demonstrates that the response of a Communist-dominated union leadership to race discrimination in the job market was anything but simple. That leadership, regardless of its ideals, was dependent for survival in office on a white membership characterized by pervasive prejudices": ibid., p. 195. See also Mar Naison, Communists in Harlem during the Depression (Urbana, 1983), p. 265; and Alex Lichtenstein, "Labor Radicalism, Race Relations, and Anticommunism in Miami During the 1940s" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, DC, 30 March 1995), a study of the TWU's largest local outside New York City.
56. Nelson, "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", p. 17. On the TWU, see Joshua B. Freeman, In Transit: The Transport Workers Union in New York City, 1933-1966 (New York, 1989). pp. 26-27, 30, 154-156; and August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, "Communist Unions and the Black Community: the Case of the Transport Workers Union, 1934-1944", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 165-197. Meier and Rudwick conclude, "The TWU's early history demonstrates that the response of a Communist-dominated union leadership to race discrimination in the job market was anything but simple. That leadership, regardless of its ideals, was dependent for survival in office on a white membership characterized by pervasive prejudices": ibid., p. 195. See also Mar Naison, Communists in Harlem during the Depression (Urbana, 1983), p. 265; and Alex Lichtenstein, "Labor Radicalism, Race Relations, and Anticommunism in Miami During the 1940s" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, DC, 30 March 1995), a study of the TWU's largest local outside New York City.
57. Nelson, "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", p. 17. On the TWU, see Joshua B. Freeman, In Transit: The Transport Workers Union in New York City, 1933-1966 (New York, 1989). pp. 26-27, 30, 154-156; and August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, "Communist Unions and the Black Community: the Case of the Transport Workers Union, 1934-1944", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 165-197. Meier and Rudwick conclude, "The TWU's early history demonstrates that the response of a Communist-dominated union leadership to race discrimination in the job market was anything but simple. That leadership, regardless of its ideals, was dependent for survival in office on a white membership characterized by pervasive prejudices": ibid., p. 195. See also Mar Naison, Communists in Harlem during the Depression (Urbana, 1983), p. 265; and Alex Lichtenstein, "Labor Radicalism, Race Relations, and Anticommunism in Miami During the 1940s" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, DC, 30 March 1995), a study of the TWU's largest local outside New York City.
58. Kevin Boyle, The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945-1968 (Ithaca, 1995), pp. 107-131, quoted on p. 117. In a recent article, Boyle offers a more positive, numerically precise, and formulaic assessment of the UAW's record. He states that "when the International enjoyed substantial leverage over its regional staff and local officials, it broke the color line, though political considerations often dictated just how quickly it did so. When the International did not enjoy such leverage [i.e. in the Deep South, and among skilled tradesmen], the color line remained intact." Boyle estimates that workers in the Deep South constituted 5 per cent of the UAW membership; and skilled tradesmen, 15 per cent: Kevin Boyle, "There Are No Union Sorrows that the Union Can't Heal': The Struggle for Racial Equality in the United Auto Workers, 1940-1960", Labor History, 36 (1995), pp. 5-23, quoted on p. 17. For a critical portrayal of the UAW's record on race at Chrysler's Dodge Main plant in Hamtramck, Michigan, during the Reuther era, see Steve Jefferys, Management and Managed: Fifty Years of Crisis at Chrysler (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 162-187.
59. Kevin Boyle, The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945-1968 (Ithaca, 1995), pp. 107-131, quoted on p. 117. In a recent article, Boyle offers a more positive, numerically precise, and formulaic assessment of the UAW's record. He states that "when the International enjoyed substantial leverage over its regional staff and local officials, it broke the color line, though political considerations often dictated just how quickly it did so. When the International did not enjoy such leverage [i.e. in the Deep South, and among skilled tradesmen], the color line remained intact." Boyle estimates that workers in the Deep South constituted 5 per cent of the UAW membership; and skilled tradesmen, 15 per cent: Kevin Boyle, "There Are No Union Sorrows that the Union Can't Heal': The Struggle for Racial Equality in the United Auto Workers, 1940-1960", Labor History, 36 (1995), pp. 5-23, quoted on p. 17. For a critical portrayal of the UAW's record on race at Chrysler's Dodge Main plant in Hamtramck, Michigan, during the Reuther era, see Steve Jefferys, Management and Managed: Fifty Years of Crisis at Chrysler (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 162-187.
60. Kevin Boyle, The UAW and the Heyday of American Liberalism, 1945-1968 (Ithaca, 1995), pp. 107-131, quoted on p. 117. In a recent article, Boyle offers a more positive, numerically precise, and formulaic assessment of the UAW's record. He states that "when the International enjoyed substantial leverage over its regional staff and local officials, it broke the color line, though political considerations often dictated just how quickly it did so. When the International did not enjoy such leverage [i.e. in the Deep South, and among skilled tradesmen], the color line remained intact." Boyle estimates that workers in the Deep South constituted 5 per cent of the UAW membership; and skilled tradesmen, 15 per cent: Kevin Boyle, "There Are No Union Sorrows that the Union Can't Heal': The Struggle for Racial Equality in the United Auto Workers, 1940-1960", Labor History, 36 (1995), pp. 5-23, quoted on p. 17. For a critical portrayal of the UAW's record on race at Chrysler's Dodge Main plant in Hamtramck, Michigan, during the Reuther era, see Steve Jefferys, Management and Managed: Fifty Years of Crisis at Chrysler (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 162-187.
61. Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 551-578, quoted on p. 578; idem, "The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race, Industrial Decline, and Housing in Detroit, 1940-1960" (Ph.D., Harvard University, 1992), p. 185. Arnold R. Hirsch offers an equally powerful refutation of the conventional wisdom on the origins of white backlash in the North in "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago 1953-1966", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 522-550.
62. Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 551-578, quoted on p. 578; idem, "The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race, Industrial Decline, and Housing in Detroit, 1940-1960" (Ph.D., Harvard University, 1992), p. 185. Arnold R. Hirsch offers an equally powerful refutation of the conventional wisdom on the origins of white backlash in the North in "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago 1953-1966", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 522-550.
63. Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 551-578, quoted on p. 578; idem, "The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race, Industrial Decline, and Housing in Detroit, 1940-1960" (Ph.D., Harvard University, 1992), p. 185. Arnold R. Hirsch offers an equally powerful refutation of the conventional wisdom on the origins of white backlash in the North in "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago 1953-1966", Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 522-550.
64. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics", p. 578.
65. Ibid., quoted on pp. 571, 556: Arthur Kornhauser, Detroit as the People See It: A Survey of Attitudes in an Industrial City (Detroit, 1952), pp. 87, 90, 91.
66. Ibid., quoted on pp. 571, 556: Arthur Kornhauser, Detroit as the People See It: A Survey of Attitudes in an Industrial City (Detroit, 1952), pp. 87, 90, 91.
67. Nelson, "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", pp. 16-17; Rick Halpern, "Interracial Unionism in the Southwest: Fort Worth's Packinghouse Workers, 1937-1954", in Robert Zieger (ed.), Organized Labor in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, 1991), pp. 158-182, quoted on p. 176. See also Rick Halpern, "The CIO and the Limits of Labor-based Civil Rights Activism: The Case of Louisiana's Sugar Workers, 1947-1966" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, DC, 30 March 1995); and idem, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-1954 (Urbana, forthcoming).
68. Nelson, "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", pp. 16-17; Rick Halpern, "Interracial Unionism in the Southwest: Fort Worth's Packinghouse Workers, 1937-1954", in Robert Zieger (ed.), Organized Labor in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, 1991), pp. 158-182, quoted on p. 176. See also Rick Halpern, "The CIO and the Limits of Labor-based Civil Rights Activism: The Case of Louisiana's Sugar Workers, 1947-1966" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, DC, 30 March 1995); and idem, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-1954 (Urbana, forthcoming).
69. Nelson, "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", pp. 16-17; Rick Halpern, "Interracial Unionism in the Southwest: Fort Worth's Packinghouse Workers, 1937-1954", in Robert Zieger (ed.), Organized Labor in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, 1991), pp. 158-182, quoted on p. 176. See also Rick Halpern, "The CIO and the Limits of Labor-based Civil Rights Activism: The Case of Louisiana's Sugar Workers, 1947-1966" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, DC, 30 March 1995); and idem, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-1954 (Urbana, forthcoming).
70. Nelson, "Harry Bridges, the ILWU, and Race Relations in the CIO Era", pp. 16-17; Rick Halpern, "Interracial Unionism in the Southwest: Fort Worth's Packinghouse Workers, 1937-1954", in Robert Zieger (ed.), Organized Labor in the Twentieth-Century South (Knoxville, 1991), pp. 158-182, quoted on p. 176. See also Rick Halpern, "The CIO and the Limits of Labor-based Civil Rights Activism: The Case of Louisiana's Sugar Workers, 1947-1966" (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Organization of American Historians, Washington, DC, 30 March 1995); and idem, Down on the Killing Floor: Black and White Workers in Chicago's Packinghouses, 1904-1954 (Urbana, forthcoming).
71. Michael Goldfield, "Race and the CIO: The Possibilities for Racial Egalitarianism during the 1930s and 1940s", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 1-32, quoted on p. 11.
72. Henry L. Trewhitt, "Southern Unions and the Integration Issue", Reporter, 4 October 1956, p. 27. For scholarly studies that emphasize the commitment of union leaders to racial equality in the face of white rank-and-file resistance, see August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979); Judith Stein, "Southern Workers in National Unions: Birmingham Steelworkers, 1936-1951", in Zieger, Organized Labor in the Twentieth-Century South, pp. 183-222; Draper, Conflict of Interests.
73. Henry L. Trewhitt, "Southern Unions and the Integration Issue", Reporter, 4 October 1956, p. 27. For scholarly studies that emphasize the commitment of union leaders to racial equality in the face of white rank-and-file resistance, see August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979); Judith Stein, "Southern Workers in National Unions: Birmingham Steelworkers, 1936-1951", in Zieger, Organized Labor in the Twentieth-Century South, pp. 183-222; Draper, Conflict of Interests.
74. Henry L. Trewhitt, "Southern Unions and the Integration Issue", Reporter, 4 October 1956, p. 27. For scholarly studies that emphasize the commitment of union leaders to racial equality in the face of white rank-and-file resistance, see August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979); Judith Stein, "Southern Workers in National Unions: Birmingham Steelworkers, 1936-1951", in Zieger, Organized Labor in the Twentieth-Century South, pp. 183-222; Draper, Conflict of Interests.
75. Henry L. Trewhitt, "Southern Unions and the Integration Issue", Reporter, 4 October 1956, p. 27. For scholarly studies that emphasize the commitment of union leaders to racial equality in the face of white rank-and-file resistance, see August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW (New York, 1979); Judith Stein, "Southern Workers in National Unions: Birmingham Steelworkers, 1936-1951", in Zieger, Organized Labor in the Twentieth-Century South, pp. 183-222; Draper, Conflict of Interests.
76. Peter Friedlander, The Emergence of a UAW Local, 1936-1939: A Study in Class and Culture (Pittsburgh, 1975). Important examples of the New Left critique of CIO unionism include Ronald Radosh, "The Corporate Ideology of American Labor Leaders from Gompers to Hillman", in James Weinstein and David W. Eakins (eds), For a New America (New York, 1970), pp. 125-152; Jeremy Brecher, Strike! (San Francisco, 1972); Staughton Lynd, "The Possibility of Radicalism in the Early 1930s: The Case of Steel", Radical America, 6 (1972), pp. 37-64; Alice Lynd and Staughton Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston, 1973).
77. Peter Friedlander, The Emergence of a UAW Local, 1936-1939: A Study in Class and Culture (Pittsburgh, 1975). Important examples of the New Left critique of CIO unionism include Ronald Radosh, "The Corporate Ideology of American Labor Leaders from Gompers to Hillman", in James Weinstein and David W. Eakins (eds), For a New America (New York, 1970), pp. 125-152; Jeremy Brecher, Strike! (San Francisco, 1972); Staughton Lynd, "The Possibility of Radicalism in the Early 1930s: The Case of Steel", Radical America, 6 (1972), pp. 37-64; Alice Lynd and Staughton Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston, 1973).
78. Peter Friedlander, The Emergence of a UAW Local, 1936-1939: A Study in Class and Culture (Pittsburgh, 1975). Important examples of the New Left critique of CIO unionism include Ronald Radosh, "The Corporate Ideology of American Labor Leaders from Gompers to Hillman", in James Weinstein and David W. Eakins (eds), For a New America (New York, 1970), pp. 125-152; Jeremy Brecher, Strike! (San Francisco, 1972); Staughton Lynd, "The Possibility of Radicalism in the Early 1930s: The Case of Steel", Radical America, 6 (1972), pp. 37-64; Alice Lynd and Staughton Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston, 1973).
79. Peter Friedlander, The Emergence of a UAW Local, 1936-1939: A Study in Class and Culture (Pittsburgh, 1975). Important examples of the New Left critique of CIO unionism include Ronald Radosh, "The Corporate Ideology of American Labor Leaders from Gompers to Hillman", in James Weinstein and David W. Eakins (eds), For a New America (New York, 1970), pp. 125-152; Jeremy Brecher, Strike! (San Francisco, 1972); Staughton Lynd, "The Possibility of Radicalism in the Early 1930s: The Case of Steel", Radical America, 6 (1972), pp. 37-64; Alice Lynd and Staughton Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston, 1973).
80. Peter Friedlander, The Emergence of a UAW Local, 1936-1939: A Study in Class and Culture (Pittsburgh, 1975). Important examples of the New Left critique of CIO unionism include Ronald Radosh, "The Corporate Ideology of American Labor Leaders from Gompers to Hillman", in James Weinstein and David W. Eakins (eds), For a New America (New York, 1970), pp. 125-152; Jeremy Brecher, Strike! (San Francisco, 1972); Staughton Lynd, "The Possibility of Radicalism in the Early 1930s: The Case of Steel", Radical America, 6 (1972), pp. 37-64; Alice Lynd and Staughton Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston, 1973).
81. Friedlander, The Emergence of a UAW Local, p. 131.
82. For a provocative summary of these studies, see Melvyn Dubofsky, "Not So Turbulent Years': Another Look at the American 1930s", Amerikastudien, 24 (1979), pp. 5-20.
83. Steven Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (New York, 1991), p. 408. See also idem, "The 'Labor Question'", in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, pp. 55-84. Other important studies which demonstrate that the leadership of the CIO was at odds with the localist, often militant, shop-floor unionism of the rank and file include Nelson Lichtenstein, "Auto Worker Militancy and the Structure of Factory Life, 1937-1955", Journal of American History, 67 (1980), pp. 335-353; idem. Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (Cambridge, 1982), esp. pp. 110-135, 178-202; Daniel Nelson, "Origins of the Sit-Down Era: Worker Militancy and Innovation in the Rubber Industry, 1934-38", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 198-225; Ronald Edsforth, Class Conflict and Cultural Consensus: The Making of a Mass Consumer Society in Flint, Michigan (New Brunswick, 1987), pp. 176-219; George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s, revised ed. (Urbana, 1994).
84. Steven Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (New York, 1991), p. 408. See also idem, "The 'Labor Question'", in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, pp. 55-84. Other important studies which demonstrate that the leadership of the CIO was at odds with the localist, often militant, shop-floor unionism of the rank and file include Nelson Lichtenstein, "Auto Worker Militancy and the Structure of Factory Life, 1937-1955", Journal of American History, 67 (1980), pp. 335-353; idem. Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (Cambridge, 1982), esp. pp. 110-135, 178-202; Daniel Nelson, "Origins of the Sit-Down Era: Worker Militancy and Innovation in the Rubber Industry, 1934-38", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 198-225; Ronald Edsforth, Class Conflict and Cultural Consensus: The Making of a Mass Consumer Society in Flint, Michigan (New Brunswick, 1987), pp. 176-219; George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s, revised ed. (Urbana, 1994).
85. Steven Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (New York, 1991), p. 408. See also idem, "The 'Labor Question'", in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, pp. 55-84. Other important studies which demonstrate that the leadership of the CIO was at odds with the localist, often militant, shop-floor unionism of the rank and file include Nelson Lichtenstein, "Auto Worker Militancy and the Structure of Factory Life, 1937-1955", Journal of American History, 67 (1980), pp. 335-353; idem. Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (Cambridge, 1982), esp. pp. 110-135, 178-202; Daniel Nelson, "Origins of the Sit-Down Era: Worker Militancy and Innovation in the Rubber Industry, 1934-38", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 198-225; Ronald Edsforth, Class Conflict and Cultural Consensus: The Making of a Mass Consumer Society in Flint, Michigan (New Brunswick, 1987), pp. 176-219; George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s, revised ed. (Urbana, 1994).
86. Steven Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (New York, 1991), p. 408. See also idem, "The 'Labor Question'", in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, pp. 55-84. Other important studies which demonstrate that the leadership of the CIO was at odds with the localist, often militant, shop-floor unionism of the rank and file include Nelson Lichtenstein, "Auto Worker Militancy and the Structure of Factory Life, 1937-1955", Journal of American History, 67 (1980), pp. 335-353; idem. Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (Cambridge, 1982), esp. pp. 110-135, 178-202; Daniel Nelson, "Origins of the Sit-Down Era: Worker Militancy and Innovation in the Rubber Industry, 1934-38", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 198-225; Ronald Edsforth, Class Conflict and Cultural Consensus: The Making of a Mass Consumer Society in Flint, Michigan (New Brunswick, 1987), pp. 176-219; George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s, revised ed. (Urbana, 1994).
87. Steven Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (New York, 1991), p. 408. See also idem, "The 'Labor Question'", in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, pp. 55-84. Other important studies which demonstrate that the leadership of the CIO was at odds with the localist, often militant, shop-floor unionism of the rank and file include Nelson Lichtenstein, "Auto Worker Militancy and the Structure of Factory Life, 1937-1955", Journal of American History, 67 (1980), pp. 335-353; idem. Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (Cambridge, 1982), esp. pp. 110-135, 178-202; Daniel Nelson, "Origins of the Sit-Down Era: Worker Militancy and Innovation in the Rubber Industry, 1934-38", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 198-225; Ronald Edsforth, Class Conflict and Cultural Consensus: The Making of a Mass Consumer Society in Flint, Michigan (New Brunswick, 1987), pp. 176-219; George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s, revised ed. (Urbana, 1994).
88. Steven Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (New York, 1991), p. 408. See also idem, "The 'Labor Question'", in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, pp. 55-84. Other important studies which demonstrate that the leadership of the CIO was at odds with the localist, often militant, shop-floor unionism of the rank and file include Nelson Lichtenstein, "Auto Worker Militancy and the Structure of Factory Life, 1937-1955", Journal of American History, 67 (1980), pp. 335-353; idem. Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (Cambridge, 1982), esp. pp. 110-135, 178-202; Daniel Nelson, "Origins of the Sit-Down Era: Worker Militancy and Innovation in the Rubber Industry, 1934-38", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 198-225; Ronald Edsforth, Class Conflict and Cultural Consensus: The Making of a Mass Consumer Society in Flint, Michigan (New Brunswick, 1987), pp. 176-219; George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s, revised ed. (Urbana, 1994).
89. Steven Fraser, Labor Will Rule: Sidney Hillman and the Rise of American Labor (New York, 1991), p. 408. See also idem, "The 'Labor Question'", in Fraser and Gerstle, The Rise and Fall of the New Deal Order, pp. 55-84. Other important studies which demonstrate that the leadership of the CIO was at odds with the localist, often militant, shop-floor unionism of the rank and file include Nelson Lichtenstein, "Auto Worker Militancy and the Structure of Factory Life, 1937-1955", Journal of American History, 67 (1980), pp. 335-353; idem. Labor's War at Home: The CIO in World War II (Cambridge, 1982), esp. pp. 110-135, 178-202; Daniel Nelson, "Origins of the Sit-Down Era: Worker Militancy and Innovation in the Rubber Industry, 1934-38", Labor History, 23 (1982), pp. 198-225; Ronald Edsforth, Class Conflict and Cultural Consensus: The Making of a Mass Consumer Society in Flint, Michigan (New Brunswick, 1987), pp. 176-219; George Lipsitz, Rainbow at Midnight: Labor and Culture in the 1940s, revised ed. (Urbana, 1994).
90. In a provocative and insightful response to Michael Goldfield's article cited in note 22, Gary Gerstlc argues that in assessing white working-class resistance to black demands for equality, historians must "broaden the focus", and take into account not only the neighborhood as well as the workplace, but also white "fears of sexual mixing and its consequences". See Gary Gerstle, "Working-Class Racism: Broaden the Focus", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 33-40, quoted on p. 35; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York, 1983), pp. 68-99, 171-211, quoted on p. 196; Greenberg quoted in Thomas Byrne Edsall with Mary D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York, 1991), p. 182.
91. In a provocative and insightful response to Michael Goldfield's article cited in note 22, Gary Gerstlc argues that in assessing white working-class resistance to black demands for equality, historians must "broaden the focus", and take into account not only the neighborhood as well as the workplace, but also white "fears of sexual mixing and its consequences". See Gary Gerstle, "Working-Class Racism: Broaden the Focus", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 33-40, quoted on p. 35; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York, 1983), pp. 68-99, 171-211, quoted on p. 196; Greenberg quoted in Thomas Byrne Edsall with Mary D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York, 1991), p. 182.
92. In a provocative and insightful response to Michael Goldfield's article cited in note 22, Gary Gerstlc argues that in assessing white working-class resistance to black demands for equality, historians must "broaden the focus", and take into account not only the neighborhood as well as the workplace, but also white "fears of sexual mixing and its consequences". See Gary Gerstle, "Working-Class Racism: Broaden the Focus", International Labor and Working-Class History, 44 (1993), pp. 33-40, quoted on p. 35; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York, 1983), pp. 68-99, 171-211, quoted on p. 196; Greenberg quoted in Thomas Byrne Edsall with Mary D. Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York, 1991), p. 182.
93. Dennis C. Dickerson, Out of the Crucible: Black Steelworkers in Western Pennsylvania, 1875-1980 (Albany, 1986), p. 190; Bruce Nelson, "'CIO Meant One Thing for the Whites and Another Thing for Us'": Steelworkers and Civil Rights, 1936-1974", in Robert H. Zieger (ed.), Essays in Recent Southern Labor History (Knoxville, forthcoming): Hill, "Race, Ethnicity, and Organized Labor", pp. 68-70. See also John Hinshaw, "Dialectic of Division: Race and Power among Western Pennsylvania Steelworkers, 1935-1975" (Ph.D., Carnegie-Mellon University, 1995).
94. Dennis C. Dickerson, Out of the Crucible: Black Steelworkers in Western Pennsylvania, 1875-1980 (Albany, 1986), p. 190; Bruce Nelson, "'CIO Meant One Thing for the Whites and Another Thing for Us'": Steelworkers and Civil Rights, 1936-1974", in Robert H. Zieger (ed.), Essays in Recent Southern Labor History (Knoxville, forthcoming): Hill, "Race, Ethnicity, and Organized Labor", pp. 68-70. See also John Hinshaw, "Dialectic of Division: Race and Power among Western Pennsylvania Steelworkers, 1935-1975" (Ph.D., Carnegie-Mellon University, 1995).
95. Dennis C. Dickerson, Out of the Crucible: Black Steelworkers in Western Pennsylvania, 1875-1980 (Albany, 1986), p. 190; Bruce Nelson, "'CIO Meant One Thing for the Whites and Another Thing for Us'": Steelworkers and Civil Rights, 1936-1974", in Robert H. Zieger (ed.), Essays in Recent Southern Labor History (Knoxville, forthcoming): Hill, "Race, Ethnicity, and Organized Labor", pp. 68-70. See also John Hinshaw, "Dialectic of Division: Race and Power among Western Pennsylvania Steelworkers, 1935-1975" (Ph.D., Carnegie-Mellon University, 1995).
96. Stanley B. Greenberg, Race and State in Capitalist Development: Comparative Perspectives (New Haven, 1980), pp. 348-349;
97. Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile during World War II", p. 988.
98. Tomas Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley, 1994), pp. 12. 9. In regard to the definition of groups as "white" or "nonwhite", James Barrett and David Roediger have begun to explore the process by which immigrants from southern and eastern Europe shed their status as "inbetween people" and gradually became white. In doing so, they have added another - vitally important - layer of complexity to the study of race and ethnicity in American history. Sec James Barrett and David Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality, and the New Immigrant Working Class" (paper presented at the Commonwealth Fund Conference, University College London, 18 February 1995); and David R. Roediger, "Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of 'White Ethnics' in the United States", in Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London, 1994), pp. 181-198. For provocative studies of how Irish immigrants laid claim to the wages of whiteness, see Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, vol. 1: Racial Oppression and Social Control (London, 1994), and Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York, 1995).
99. Tomas Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley, 1994), pp. 12. 9. In regard to the definition of groups as "white" or "nonwhite", James Barrett and David Roediger have begun to explore the process by which immigrants from southern and eastern Europe shed their status as "inbetween people" and gradually became white. In doing so, they have added another - vitally important - layer of complexity to the study of race and ethnicity in American history. Sec James Barrett and David Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality, and the New Immigrant Working Class" (paper presented at the Commonwealth Fund Conference, University College London, 18 February 1995); and David R. Roediger, "Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of 'White Ethnics' in the United States", in Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London, 1994), pp. 181-198. For provocative studies of how Irish immigrants laid claim to the wages of whiteness, see Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, vol. 1: Racial Oppression and Social Control (London, 1994), and Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York, 1995).
100. Tomas Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley, 1994), pp. 12. 9. In regard to the definition of groups as "white" or "nonwhite", James Barrett and David Roediger have begun to explore the process by which immigrants from southern and eastern Europe shed their status as "inbetween people" and gradually became white. In doing so, they have added another - vitally important - layer of complexity to the study of race and ethnicity in American history. Sec James Barrett and David Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality, and the New Immigrant Working Class" (paper presented at the Commonwealth Fund Conference, University College London, 18 February 1995); and David R. Roediger, "Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of 'White Ethnics' in the United States", in Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London, 1994), pp. 181-198. For provocative studies of how Irish immigrants laid claim to the wages of whiteness, see Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, vol. 1: Racial Oppression and Social Control (London, 1994), and Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York, 1995).
101. Tomas Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley, 1994), pp. 12. 9. In regard to the definition of groups as "white" or "nonwhite", James Barrett and David Roediger have begun to explore the process by which immigrants from southern and eastern Europe shed their status as "inbetween people" and gradually became white. In doing so, they have added another - vitally important - layer of complexity to the study of race and ethnicity in American history. Sec James Barrett and David Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality, and the New Immigrant Working Class" (paper presented at the Commonwealth Fund Conference, University College London, 18 February 1995); and David R. Roediger, "Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of 'White Ethnics' in the United States", in Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London, 1994), pp. 181-198. For provocative studies of how Irish immigrants laid claim to the wages of whiteness, see Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, vol. 1: Racial Oppression and Social Control (London, 1994), and Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York, 1995).
102. Tomas Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley, 1994), pp. 12. 9. In regard to the definition of groups as "white" or "nonwhite", James Barrett and David Roediger have begun to explore the process by which immigrants from southern and eastern Europe shed their status as "inbetween people" and gradually became white. In doing so, they have added another - vitally important - layer of complexity to the study of race and ethnicity in American history. Sec James Barrett and David Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality, and the New Immigrant Working Class" (paper presented at the Commonwealth Fund Conference, University College London, 18 February 1995); and David R. Roediger, "Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of 'White Ethnics' in the United States", in Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics, and Working Class History (London, 1994), pp. 181-198. For provocative studies of how Irish immigrants laid claim to the wages of whiteness, see Theodore W. Allen, The Invention of the White Race, vol. 1: Racial Oppression and Social Control (London, 1994), and Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York, 1995).
103. Chris Friday, Organizing Asian American Labor: The Pacific Coast Canned-Salmon Industry, 1870-1942 (Philadelphia, 1994); Mario T. Garcia, "Border Proletarians: Mexican-Americans and the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers, 1939-1946", in Robert Asher and Charles Stephenson (eds), Labor Divided: Race and Ethnicity in United States Labor Struggles, 1835-1960 (Albany, 1990), pp. 83-104; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987); Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley, 1993). For useful introductions to the literature on Asian and Latina and Latino workers, see Chris Friday, "Asian American Labor and Historical Interpretation", Labor History, 35 (1995), pp. 524-546;
104. Chris Friday, Organizing Asian American Labor: The Pacific Coast Canned-Salmon Industry, 1870-1942 (Philadelphia, 1994); Mario T. Garcia, "Border Proletarians: Mexican-Americans and the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers, 1939-1946", in Robert Asher and Charles Stephenson (eds), Labor Divided: Race and Ethnicity in United States Labor Struggles, 1835-1960 (Albany, 1990), pp. 83-104; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987); Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley, 1993). For useful introductions to the literature on Asian and Latina and Latino workers, see Chris Friday, "Asian American Labor and Historical Interpretation", Labor History, 35 (1995), pp. 524-546; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, "Conversing Across Boundaries of Race, Ethnicity, Class, Gender, and Region: Latino and Latina Labor History", ibid., pp. 547-563.
105. Chris Friday, Organizing Asian American Labor: The Pacific Coast Canned-Salmon Industry, 1870-1942 (Philadelphia, 1994); Mario T. Garcia, "Border Proletarians: Mexican-Americans and the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers, 1939-1946", in Robert Asher and Charles Stephenson (eds), Labor Divided: Race and Ethnicity in United States Labor Struggles, 1835-1960 (Albany, 1990), pp. 83-104; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987); Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley, 1993). For useful introductions to the literature on Asian and Latina and Latino workers, see Chris Friday, "Asian American Labor and Historical Interpretation", Labor History, 35 (1995), pp. 524-546; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, "Conversing Across Boundaries of Race, Ethnicity, Class, Gender, and Region: Latino and Latina Labor History", ibid., pp. 547-563.
106. Chris Friday, Organizing Asian American Labor: The Pacific Coast Canned-Salmon Industry, 1870-1942 (Philadelphia, 1994); Mario T. Garcia, "Border Proletarians: Mexican-Americans and the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers, 1939-1946", in Robert Asher and Charles Stephenson (eds), Labor Divided: Race and Ethnicity in United States Labor Struggles, 1835-1960 (Albany, 1990), pp. 83-104; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987); Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley, 1993). For useful introductions to the literature on Asian and Latina and Latino workers, see Chris Friday, "Asian American Labor and Historical Interpretation", Labor History, 35 (1995), pp. 524-546; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, "Conversing Across Boundaries of Race, Ethnicity, Class, Gender, and Region: Latino and Latina Labor History", ibid., pp. 547-563.
107. Chris Friday, Organizing Asian American Labor: The Pacific Coast Canned-Salmon Industry, 1870-1942 (Philadelphia, 1994); Mario T. Garcia, "Border Proletarians: Mexican-Americans and the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers, 1939-1946", in Robert Asher and Charles Stephenson (eds), Labor Divided: Race and Ethnicity in United States Labor Struggles, 1835-1960 (Albany, 1990), pp. 83-104; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987); Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley, 1993). For useful introductions to the literature on Asian and Latina and Latino workers, see Chris Friday, "Asian American Labor and Historical Interpretation", Labor History, 35 (1995), pp. 524-546; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, "Conversing Across Boundaries of Race, Ethnicity, Class, Gender, and Region: Latino and Latina Labor History", ibid., pp. 547-563.
108. Chris Friday, Organizing Asian American Labor: The Pacific Coast Canned-Salmon Industry, 1870-1942 (Philadelphia, 1994); Mario T. Garcia, "Border Proletarians: Mexican-Americans and the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers, 1939-1946", in Robert Asher and Charles Stephenson (eds), Labor Divided: Race and Ethnicity in United States Labor Struggles, 1835-1960 (Albany, 1990), pp. 83-104; Vicki L. Ruiz, Cannery Women, Cannery Lives: Mexican Women, Unionization, and the California Food Processing Industry, 1930-1950 (Albuquerque, 1987); Zaragosa Vargas, Proletarians of the North: A History of Mexican Industrial Workers in Detroit and the Midwest, 1917-1933 (Berkeley, 1993). For useful introductions to the literature on Asian and Latina and Latino workers, see Chris Friday, "Asian American Labor and Historical Interpretation", Labor History, 35 (1995), pp. 524-546; Camille Guerin-Gonzales, "Conversing Across Boundaries of Race, Ethnicity, Class, Gender, and Region: Latino and Latina Labor History", ibid., pp. 547-563.
109. Nelson, "The 'Lords of the Docks' Reconsidered".
110. Ibid.; Ricardo Romo, East Los Angeles: History of a Barrio (Austin, 1983), p. 170;
111. George J. Sanchez, Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900-1945 (New York, 1993).
112. On the development of a labor market "niche" as a means of furthering the economic status and security of an ethnic group, see Suzanne Modell, "The Ethnic Niche and the Structure of Opportunity: Immigrants and Minorities in New York", in Michael B. Katz (ed.), The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, 1993), pp. 161-193. To my knowledge, the relationship between black and Mexican workers is largely unexplored territory. Zaragosa Vargas emphasizes the common experience of discrimination but also the competition between Mexicans and African Americans, in Proletarians of the North, pp. 86-123. Vicki Ruiz offers some dramatic examples of solidarity among blacks, Mexicans, and whites in Cannery Women, Cannery Lives.
113. On the development of a labor market "niche" as a means of furthering the economic status and security of an ethnic group, see Suzanne Modell, "The Ethnic Niche and the Structure of Opportunity: Immigrants and Minorities in New York", in Michael B. Katz (ed.), The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, 1993), pp. 161-193. To my knowledge, the relationship between black and Mexican workers is largely unexplored territory. Zaragosa Vargas emphasizes the common experience of discrimination but also the competition between Mexicans and African Americans, in Proletarians of the North, pp. 86-123. Vicki Ruiz offers some dramatic examples of solidarity among blacks, Mexicans, and whites in Cannery Women, Cannery Lives.
114. On the development of a labor market "niche" as a means of furthering the economic status and security of an ethnic group, see Suzanne Modell, "The Ethnic Niche and the Structure of Opportunity: Immigrants and Minorities in New York", in Michael B. Katz (ed.), The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, 1993), pp. 161-193. To my knowledge, the relationship between black and Mexican workers is largely unexplored territory. Zaragosa Vargas emphasizes the common experience of discrimination but also the competition between Mexicans and African Americans, in Proletarians of the North, pp. 86-123. Vicki Ruiz offers some dramatic examples of solidarity among blacks, Mexicans, and whites in Cannery Women, Cannery Lives.
115. Alice Kessler Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 190-204, quoted on p. 192; Patricia Cooper, "The Faces of Gender: Sex Segregation and Work Relations at Philco, 1928-1938", in Ava Baron (ed.), Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991), pp. 320-350; Bruce Fehn, "'Chickens Come Home to Roost': Industrial Reorganization, Seniority, and Gender Conflict in the United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1955-1966", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 324-341; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Woman's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s", Feminist Studies, 9 (1983), pp. 359-386; idem, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950", in Ruth Milkman (ed.). Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), pp. 206-234. See also Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1991); and Labor History, 34 (1993), a special issue edited by Elizabeth Faue and devoted entirely to the theme of "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History".
116. Alice Kessler Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 190-204, quoted on p. 192; Patricia Cooper, "The Faces of Gender: Sex Segregation and Work Relations at Philco, 1928-1938", in Ava Baron (ed.), Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991), pp. 320-350; Bruce Fehn, "'Chickens Come Home to Roost': Industrial Reorganization, Seniority, and Gender Conflict in the United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1955-1966", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 324-341; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Woman's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s", Feminist Studies, 9 (1983), pp. 359-386; idem, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950", in Ruth Milkman (ed.). Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), pp. 206-234. See also Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1991); and Labor History, 34 (1993), a special issue edited by Elizabeth Faue and devoted entirely to the theme of "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History".
117. Alice Kessler Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 190-204, quoted on p. 192; Patricia Cooper, "The Faces of Gender: Sex Segregation and Work Relations at Philco, 1928-1938", in Ava Baron (ed.), Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991), pp. 320-350; Bruce Fehn, "'Chickens Come Home to Roost': Industrial Reorganization, Seniority, and Gender Conflict in the United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1955-1966", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 324-341; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Woman's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s", Feminist Studies, 9 (1983), pp. 359-386; idem, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950", in Ruth Milkman (ed.). Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), pp. 206-234. See also Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1991); and Labor History, 34 (1993), a special issue edited by Elizabeth Faue and devoted entirely to the theme of "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History".
118. Alice Kessler Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 190-204, quoted on p. 192; Patricia Cooper, "The Faces of Gender: Sex Segregation and Work Relations at Philco, 1928-1938", in Ava Baron (ed.), Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991), pp. 320-350; Bruce Fehn, "'Chickens Come Home to Roost': Industrial Reorganization, Seniority, and Gender Conflict in the United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1955-1966", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 324-341; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Woman's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s", Feminist Studies, 9 (1983), pp. 359-386; idem, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950", in Ruth Milkman (ed.). Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), pp. 206-234. See also Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1991); and Labor History, 34 (1993), a special issue edited by Elizabeth Faue and devoted entirely to the theme of "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History".
119. Alice Kessler Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 190-204, quoted on p. 192; Patricia Cooper, "The Faces of Gender: Sex Segregation and Work Relations at Philco, 1928-1938", in Ava Baron (ed.), Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991), pp. 320-350; Bruce Fehn, "'Chickens Come Home to Roost': Industrial Reorganization, Seniority, and Gender Conflict in the United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1955-1966", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 324-341; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Woman's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s", Feminist Studies, 9 (1983), pp. 359-386; idem, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950", in Ruth Milkman (ed.). Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), pp. 206-234. See also Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1991); and Labor History, 34 (1993), a special issue edited by Elizabeth Faue and devoted entirely to the theme of "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History".
120. Alice Kessler Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 190-204, quoted on p. 192; Patricia Cooper, "The Faces of Gender: Sex Segregation and Work Relations at Philco, 1928-1938", in Ava Baron (ed.), Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991), pp. 320-350; Bruce Fehn, "'Chickens Come Home to Roost': Industrial Reorganization, Seniority, and Gender Conflict in the United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1955-1966", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 324-341; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Woman's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s", Feminist Studies, 9 (1983), pp. 359-386; idem, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950", in Ruth Milkman (ed.). Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), pp. 206-234. See also Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1991); and Labor History, 34 (1993), a special issue edited by Elizabeth Faue and devoted entirely to the theme of "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History".
121. Alice Kessler Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 190-204, quoted on p. 192; Patricia Cooper, "The Faces of Gender: Sex Segregation and Work Relations at Philco, 1928-1938", in Ava Baron (ed.), Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991), pp. 320-350; Bruce Fehn, "'Chickens Come Home to Roost': Industrial Reorganization, Seniority, and Gender Conflict in the United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1955-1966", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 324-341; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Woman's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s", Feminist Studies, 9 (1983), pp. 359-386; idem, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950", in Ruth Milkman (ed.). Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), pp. 206-234. See also Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1991); and Labor History, 34 (1993), a special issue edited by Elizabeth Faue and devoted entirely to the theme of "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History".
122. Alice Kessler Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 190-204, quoted on p. 192; Patricia Cooper, "The Faces of Gender: Sex Segregation and Work Relations at Philco, 1928-1938", in Ava Baron (ed.), Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991), pp. 320-350; Bruce Fehn, "'Chickens Come Home to Roost': Industrial Reorganization, Seniority, and Gender Conflict in the United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1955-1966", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 324-341; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Woman's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s", Feminist Studies, 9 (1983), pp. 359-386; idem, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950", in Ruth Milkman (ed.). Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), pp. 206-234. See also Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1991); and Labor History, 34 (1993), a special issue edited by Elizabeth Faue and devoted entirely to the theme of "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History".
123. Alice Kessler Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 190-204, quoted on p. 192; Patricia Cooper, "The Faces of Gender: Sex Segregation and Work Relations at Philco, 1928-1938", in Ava Baron (ed.), Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991), pp. 320-350; Bruce Fehn, "'Chickens Come Home to Roost': Industrial Reorganization, Seniority, and Gender Conflict in the United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1955-1966", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 324-341; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Woman's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s", Feminist Studies, 9 (1983), pp. 359-386; idem, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950", in Ruth Milkman (ed.). Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), pp. 206-234. See also Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1991); and Labor History, 34 (1993), a special issue edited by Elizabeth Faue and devoted entirely to the theme of "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History".
124. Alice Kessler Harris, "Treating the Male as 'Other': Re-defining the Parameters of Labor History", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 190-204, quoted on p. 192; Patricia Cooper, "The Faces of Gender: Sex Segregation and Work Relations at Philco, 1928-1938", in Ava Baron (ed.), Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor (Ithaca, 1991), pp. 320-350; Bruce Fehn, "'Chickens Come Home to Roost': Industrial Reorganization, Seniority, and Gender Conflict in the United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1955-1966", Labor History, 34 (1993), pp. 324-341; Nancy Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, 1990); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II (Urbana, 1987); Sharon Hartman Strom, "Challenging 'Woman's Place': Feminism, the Left, and Industrial Unionism in the 1930s", Feminist Studies, 9 (1983), pp. 359-386; idem, "'We're No Kitty Foyles': Organizing Office Workers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations, 1937-1950", in Ruth Milkman (ed.). Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (Boston, 1985), pp. 206-234. See also Elizabeth Faue, Community of Suffering and Struggle: Women, Men, and the Labor Movement in Minneapolis, 1915-1945 (Chapel Hill, 1991); and Labor History, 34 (1993), a special issue edited by Elizabeth Faue and devoted entirely to the theme of "Gender and the Reconstruction of Labor History".
125. Zieger, The CIO, p. 350. Some CIO unions, especially those with Left leadership and a large percentage of female members, had a much better record on women's issues than others. Vicki Ruiz offers a positive assessment of the Left-led United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing, and Allied Workers (UCAPAWA) in Cannery Women, Cannery Lives, pp. 87-102; and Mark McColloch does the same for the United Electrical Workers (UE) in "The Shop-Floor Dimension of Union Rivalry: The Case of Westinghouse in the 1950s", in The CIO's Left-Led Unions, pp. 183-199.
126. Zieger, The CIO, p. 350. Some CIO unions, especially those with Left leadership and a large percentage of female members, had a much better record on women's issues than others. Vicki Ruiz offers a positive assessment of the Left-led United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing, and Allied Workers (UCAPAWA) in Cannery Women, Cannery Lives, pp. 87-102; and Mark McColloch does the same for the United Electrical Workers (UE) in "The Shop-Floor Dimension of Union Rivalry: The Case of Westinghouse in the 1950s", in The CIO's Left-Led Unions, pp. 183-199.
127. Zieger, The CIO, p. 350. Some CIO unions, especially those with Left leadership and a large percentage of female members, had a much better record on women's issues than others. Vicki Ruiz offers a positive assessment of the Left-led United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing, and Allied Workers (UCAPAWA) in Cannery Women, Cannery Lives, pp. 87-102; and Mark McColloch does the same for the United Electrical Workers (UE) in "The Shop-Floor Dimension of Union Rivalry: The Case of Westinghouse in the 1950s", in The CIO's Left-Led Unions, pp. 183-199.
128. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "'The Mind that Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape, and Racial Violence", in Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell and Sharon Thompson (eds), Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality (New York, 1983), pp. 328-349; George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (1971; rpt. Middletown, 1987), pp. 273-282; Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black/White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (New York, 1984); Nancy MacLean, "The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered: Gender and Sexual Politics in the Making of Reactionary Populism", Journal of American History, 78 (1991), pp. 917-948.
129. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "'The Mind that Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape, and Racial Violence", in Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell and Sharon Thompson (eds), Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality (New York, 1983), pp. 328-349; George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (1971; rpt. Middletown, 1987), pp. 273-282; Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black/White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (New York, 1984); Nancy MacLean, "The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered: Gender and Sexual Politics in the Making of Reactionary Populism", Journal of American History, 78 (1991), pp. 917-948.
130. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "'The Mind that Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape, and Racial Violence", in Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell and Sharon Thompson (eds), Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality (New York, 1983), pp. 328-349; George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (1971; rpt. Middletown, 1987), pp. 273-282; Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black/White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (New York, 1984); Nancy MacLean, "The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered: Gender and Sexual Politics in the Making of Reactionary Populism", Journal of American History, 78 (1991), pp. 917-948.
131. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, "'The Mind that Burns in Each Body': Women, Rape, and Racial Violence", in Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell and Sharon Thompson (eds), Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality (New York, 1983), pp. 328-349; George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (1971; rpt. Middletown, 1987), pp. 273-282; Joel Williamson, The Crucible of Race: Black/White Relations in the American South since Emancipation (New York, 1984); Nancy MacLean, "The Leo Frank Case Reconsidered: Gender and Sexual Politics in the Making of Reactionary Populism", Journal of American History, 78 (1991), pp. 917-948.
132. Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile during World War II", pp. 952, 978-981; Daniel Letwin, "Interracial Unionism, Gender, and 'Social Equality' in the Alabama Coalfields, 1878-1908", Journal of Southern History, 41 (1995), pp. 519-554, quoted on p. 544; Dolores E. Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia, 1985), pp. 3-7, and passim.
133. Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile during World War II", pp. 952, 978-981; Daniel Letwin, "Interracial Unionism, Gender, and 'Social Equality' in the Alabama Coalfields, 1878-1908", Journal of Southern History, 41 (1995), pp. 519-554, quoted on p. 544; Dolores E. Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia, 1985), pp. 3-7, and passim.
134. Nelson, "Organized Labor and the Struggle for Black Equality in Mobile during World War II", pp. 952, 978-981; Daniel Letwin, "Interracial Unionism, Gender, and 'Social Equality' in the Alabama Coalfields, 1878-1908", Journal of Southern History, 41 (1995), pp. 519-554, quoted on p. 544; Dolores E. Janiewski, Sisterhood Denied: Race, Gender, and Class in a New South Community (Philadelphia, 1985), pp. 3-7, and passim.
135. Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (New York, 1994), quoted on p. 9; Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down'", pp. 1601-1607; Alan Dawley and Joe William Trotter, Jr, "Race and Class", Labor History, 35 (1994), pp. 486-494, quoted on p. 493.
136. Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (New York, 1994), quoted on p. 9; Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down'", pp. 1601-1607; Alan Dawley and Joe William Trotter, Jr, "Race and Class", Labor History, 35 (1994), pp. 486-494, quoted on p. 493.
137. Dana Frank, Purchasing Power: Consumer Organizing, Gender, and the Seattle Labor Movement, 1919-1929 (New York, 1994), quoted on p. 9; Arnesen, "'Like Banquo's Ghost, It Will Not Down'", pp. 1601-1607; Alan Dawley and Joe William Trotter, Jr, "Race and Class", Labor History, 35 (1994), pp. 486-494, quoted on p. 493.
138. Zieger, The CIO, p. 345.
139. Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson: A Biography (New York, 1989), pp. 309-310; Norrell, "'Caste in Steel', pp. 689-690; Nelson, "'CIO Meant One Thing for the Whites and Another Thing for Us'"; William H. Harris, The Harder We Run: Black Workers since the Civil War (New York, 1982), pp. 140-142, 147-177; Paula F. Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, Pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement (Baton Rouge, 1990), pp. 206-239;
140. Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson: A Biography (New York, 1989), pp. 309-310; Norrell, "'Caste in Steel', pp. 689-690; Nelson, "'CIO Meant One Thing for the Whites and Another Thing for Us'"; William H. Harris, The Harder We Run: Black Workers since the Civil War (New York, 1982), pp. 140-142, 147-177; Paula F. Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, Pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement (Baton Rouge, 1990), pp. 206-239;
141. Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson: A Biography (New York, 1989), pp. 309-310; Norrell, "'Caste in Steel', pp. 689-690; Nelson, "'CIO Meant One Thing for the Whites and Another Thing for Us'"; William H. Harris, The Harder We Run: Black Workers since the Civil War (New York, 1982), pp. 140-142, 147-177; Paula F. Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, Pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement (Baton Rouge, 1990), pp. 206-239;
142. Martin Bauml Duberman, Paul Robeson: A Biography (New York, 1989), pp. 309-310; Norrell, "'Caste in Steel', pp. 689-690; Nelson, "'CIO Meant One Thing for the Whites and Another Thing for Us'"; William H. Harris, The Harder We Run: Black Workers since the Civil War (New York, 1982), pp. 140-142, 147-177; Paula F. Pfeffer, A. Philip Randolph, Pioneer of the Civil Rights Movement (Baton Rouge, 1990), pp. 206-239;
143. Nathaniel Brown, interviewed by Herbert Hill, 21 October 1962, Atlanta, Georgia, Personal Papers of Herbert Hill, Madison, Wisconsin; used with Herbert Hill's permission.