Sex, steroids, and sleep: A review

Sleep

Volumn 22, Issue 5, 1999, Pages 540-555

  Manber, Rachel ^b   Armitage, Roseanne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT DALLAS   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CHOLINE ACETYLTRANSFERASE; ESTRADIOL; ESTROGEN; HYDROXYPROGESTERONE; MELATONIN; PROGESTERONE; SEX HORMONE;

DEPRESSION; DYSPHORIA; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; FEMALE; GABAERGIC SYSTEM; HORMONAL REGULATION; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; HYPOGONADISM; INSOMNIA; MENSTRUAL CYCLE; NONREM SLEEP; PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REM SLEEP; REVIEW; SEX DIFFERENCE; SLEEP DISORDER; STEROID RELEASE;

ANIMALS; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER; FEMALE; GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID; GONADAL STEROID HORMONES; HUMANS; HYPOGONADISM; MALE; MELATONIN; RECEPTORS, GABA; SLEEP APNEA SYNDROMES; SLEEP DISORDERS; SLEEP INITIATION AND MAINTENANCE DISORDERS; SLEEP STAGES;

EID: 0033178451     PISSN: 01618105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (185)

1. National Commission on Sleep Disorders Research. Wake up america: a national sleep alert, Vol. 1: Executive Summary and Executive Report. 1993:10.
2. Wever RA. Characteristics of circadian rhythm in human functions. Journal of Neural Transmitters 1986;21 (Suppl.):323-327.
3. Winget CM, DeRoshia CM, Vernikos-Danellis CW, Rosenblatt WS, Hetherington NW. Comparison of circadian rhythm in male and female humans. Waking and Sleeping 1977;1:359-363.
4. Kattapong KR, Fogg LF, Eastman CI. Effects of sex, menstrual cycle phase, and oral contraceptive use on circadian temperature rhythm. Chronobiology International 1995:12:257-266.
5. Gaillard JM, Blois R. Spindle density in sleep of normal subjects. Sleep 1981;4:385-391.
6. Reynolds CF III, Shipley JE, Sleep in depressive disorders. In: Hales RE, Frances AJ, eds. Psychiatry update: the american psychiatric association annual review , Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1985;4:341-351.
7. Dijk DJ, Beersma DGM, Bloem CM. Sex differences in the sleep EEG of young adults: visual scoring and spectral analysis. Sleep 1989; 12: 500-507.
8. Ehlers CL, Kupfer DJ. Slow-wave sleep: Do young adult men and women age differently. Journal of Sleep Research 1997;6:211-215.
9. Armitage R, Hofftnann R. Sleep electrophysiology of major depressive disorders. Current Review of Mood and Anxiety Disorders 1997;1:139-151.
10. Bowersox SS, Floyd T, Dement WD. Electroencephalogram during sleep in the cat: age effects on slow wave activity. Sleep 1984;7:380-385.
11. Fang J, Fishbein W. Sex differences in paradoxical sleep: Influences of estrus cycle and ovariectomy. Brain Research 1996;734:275-285.
12. Bright PF, Fishbein W. Gender differences in the ultradian of sleep. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 1987;13:264.
13. Sinton CW, Valatx JL, Jouvet M. Increased sleep time in the offspring of caffeine-treated dams from two inbred strains of mice. Neuroscience Letters 1981;24:169-174.
14. Pfaff DW, McEwen BS. Actions of estrogen and progestins on nerve cells. Science 1983;219:808-814.
15. Frankfurt M, Gould E, Wooley CS, McEwen BS. Gonadal steroids modify dendritic spine density in ventromedial hypothalamic neurons: a Gogli study in the adult rat. Neuroendocrinology 1990;51:530-535.
16. Rupprecht R, Reul JMHM, Trapp T, van Steensel B, Wetzel C, Damm K, Zieglgansberger W, Holsboer F. Progesterone receptor-mediated effects of neuroactive steroids. Neuron 1993;11:523-530.
17. A receptor. Mechanism of action and physiological significance. Progress in Neurobiology 1992;38:379-395.
18. A receptor function. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 1993;45:423-428.
19. Landgren S, Aasly J, Bäckström T, Dubrovski B, Danielsson E. The effect of progesterone and its metabolites on the interictal epileptiformdischarge in the cat's cerebral cortex. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 1987;131:33-42.
20. Selye H. Correlations between the chemical structure and the pharmacological actions of the steroids. Endocrinology 1942;3:437-453.
21. Gee KW, Bolger MB, Brinton RE, Coirini H, McEwen BH. Steroid modulation of the chloride ionophore in rat brain: structure-activity requirements, regional dependence, and mechanism of action. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
22. Majewska MD, Harrison NL, Schwartz RD, Barker JL, Paul SM. Steroid hormone metabolites are barbiturate-like modulators of the GABA receptor. Science 1986;232:1004-1007.
23. Turner JP. Potentiation of the GABA analogue muscimol by physiologically occurring steroids. British Journal of Pharmacology 1986;87:148.
24. Mellon, SH. Neurosteroids: Biochemistry, modes of action, and clinical relevance. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1994;75:1003-1008.
25. Harrison NL, Majewska MD, Harrington JW, Barker JL. Structure-activity relationship for steroid interaction with the g-aminobutric acidA receptor complex. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 1987;241:346-345.
26. Keefe DL, Naftolin F. Brain neurochemistry and mood. In: Smith S, Schiff I eds. Modern management of premenstrual syndrome, New York: Norton Medical Books, 1993.
27. A receptor modulators. American Journal of Physiology 1996;271:E763-E772.
28. Gandolfo G, Scherschlicht R, Gottesmann C. Benzodiazepines promote the intermediate stage at the expense of paradoxical sleep in the rat. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 1994;49:921-927.
29. Lancel M, Faulhaber J, Schiffelholz T, Romeo E, Di F, Holsboer F, Rupprecht R. Allopregnanolone affects sleep in a benzodiazepine-like fashion. Journal of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics 1997;282:1213-1218.
30. Edgar DM, Seidel WF, Gee KW, Lan NC, Field G, Xia H, Hawkinson JE, Wieland S, Carter RB, Wood PL. CCD-3693: an orally bioavailable analog of the endogenous neuroactive steroid, pregnanolone, demonstrates potent sedative hypnotic actions in the rat. Journal of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics 1997;282:420-9.
31. Schweizer E, Case WG, Gracia-Espana F, Greenbladt DJ, Rickels K. Progesterone coadministration in patients discontinuing long-term benzodiazepine therapy: effects on withdrawal severity and taper outcome. Psychopharmacology 1995;117:424-429.
32. Rupprecht R. The neuropsychopharmacological potential of neuroactive steroids. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1997;31:297-314.
33. Majewska MD, Mienville JM, Vicine S. Neurosteroid pregnenolone sulfate antagonizes electrophysiological responses to GABA in neurons. Neuroscience Letters 1988;90:279-284.
34. Majewska MD, Blue-Pajot MT, Robel P, Baulieu EE. Pregnenolone sulfate antagonizes barbiturate-induced hypnosis. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 1989;33:701-703.
35. Lancel M, Cronlein TAM, Muller-Preub P, Holsboer F. Pregnenalone enhances EEG delta activity during non-rapid eye mevement sleep in the rat, in contrast to midazolam. Brain Research 1994;646:85-94.
36. Rodriguez-Sierra JF, Hagley MT, Hendricks SE. Anxiolytic effects of progesterone are sexually dimorphic. Life Sciences 1986;38:1841-1845.
37. Wooley C, McEwen BS. Roles of estradiol and progesterone in regulation of hippocampal dendritic spine density during the estrus cycle in the rat. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1993;336(2):293-306.
38. Colvin GB, Whitmoyer DI, Lisk RD, Walter DO, Sawyer CH. Changes in sleep-wakefulness in female rats during circadian and estrus cycles. Brain Research 1968;7:173-183.
39. Kleinlogel H. The female rat's sleep during estrus cycle. Neuropsychobiology 1983;10:228-237.
40. Yamaoka S. Participation of limbic-hypothalamic structures in circadian rhythm of slow wave sleep and paradoxical sleep in the rat. Brain Research 1978;151:255-268.
41. Branchey M, Branchey L, Nadler RD. Effects of estrogen and progesterone on sleep patterns of female rats. Physiology and Behavior 1971;6:743-746.
42. Colvin GB, Whitmoyer DI, Sawyer CH. Circadian sleep-wakefulness patterns in rats after ovariectomy and treatment with estrogen. Experimental Neurology 1969;25:616-625.
43. Matsushima M. Intracerebral sites of action of estrogen on the sleep-wakefulness circadian rhythm in female rats. Fukuoka Igaku Zasshi 1990;81:48-67.
44. Matsushima M, Takeichi M. Effects of intraventricular implantation of crystalline estradiol benzoate on the sleep-wakefulness circadian rhythm of ovariectomized rats. Japanese Journal of Psychiatry and Neurology 1990;44:111-121.
45. Li H, Satinoff E. Body temperature and sleep in intact and ovariectomized female rats. American Journal of Physiology 1996;271 (Regulatory Integrative Comparative Physiology 40):R1753-R1758.
46. Li H, Satinoff E. Body temperature and sleep in intact and ovariectomized female rats. American Journal of Physiology 1996;271 (Regulatory Integrative Comparative Physiology 40):R1753-R1758.
47. Fischette CT, Biegnon A, McEwen BS. Sex differences in serotonin-1 receptor binding in rat brain. Science 1983;222:333-335.
48. Leibenluft E. Do gonadal steroids regulate circadian rhythms in humans? Journal of Affective Disorders 1993;29:175-181.
49. Jennes L, Jennes M, Purvis C, Nees M. C-fos expression in noradrenergic A2 neurons of the rat during the estrus cycle and after steroid hormone treatments. Brain Research 1992;586:171-175.
50. O'Connor LH, Nock B, McEwen BS. Regional specificity of gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor regulation by estradiol. Neuroendocrinology 1988;47:473-81.
51. Halbreich U, Lumley LA. The multiple interactional biological processes that might lead to depression and gender differences in its appearance. Journal of Affective Disorders 1993;29:159-73.
52. Heritage AS, Stumpf WE, Sar M, Grant LD. Brainstem catecholamine neurons are target sites for sex steroid hormones. Science 1980;207:1377-1379.
53. Wise PM, Rance N, Barraclough CA. Effects of estrodial and progesterone on catecholamine turnover rates in discrete hypothalamic regions in ovariectomized rats. Endocrinology 1981;108:2186-2193.
54. Shimizu H, Bray GA. Effects of castration, estrogen replacement and estrus cycle on monoamine metabolism in the nucleus accumbens, measured by microdialysis. Brain Research 1993;621:200-206.
55. Steriade M, McCarley RW. Brainstem control of wakefulness and sleep. New York: Plenum Press, 1990.
56. Sar M, Stumpf WE. Estradiol concentration in dopamine-beta-hydroxylase containing neurons of lower brain stem demonstrated by combined autoradiography and immunohistochemistry. Experimental Brain Research 1981;Suppl 3:29-36.
57. Ladinsky H, Consolo S, Bianchi S, Peri G, Garattini S. Lack of influence of contraceptive drugs on cholinergic parameters in mouse and rat brain. Pharmacology 1976;14:232-239.
58. Guillamon A, de Bias MR, Segovia S. Effects of sex steroids on the development of the locus coeruleus in the rat. Developmental Brain Research 1988;40:306-310.
59. Fishbein W, Bright PF. Feminization of male sleep cycle rhythmicity by prenatal stress. Society for Neuroscience Abstract 1987;13:226.
60. Yang SW, Fishbein W. Castration at birth induces female sleep patterns in male mice; neonatal testosterone replacement reverses the effect. Sleep Research 1995;24:65.
61. Sugden D. Elatonin biosynthesis in the mammalian pineal gland. Experientia 1989;45:922-932.
62. Cardinali DP, Nagle CA, Rosner JM. Effects of estradiol on melatonin and protein synthesis in the rat pineal organ. Hormone Research 1974;5:304-310.
63. Vacas MI, Lowenstein PR, Cardinali DP. Characterization of cysosol progesterone receptor in bovine pineal gland. Neuroendocrinology 1979;29:84-89.
64. Alonzo-Solis R, Abreu P, Lopex-Coviella I. Gonadal steroid modulation of neuroendocrine transduction: a transynaptic view. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 1996;16(3):357-382.
65. Selye H. Acquired adaptation to the anesthetic effect of steroid hormones. Journal of Immunology 1941;41:259-268.
66. Merryman W, Boiman R, Barnes L, Rothchild I. Progesterone "anesthesia" in human subjects. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology 1954;14:1567-1469.
67. Itil TM, Cora R, Akpinar S, Hermann WM, Patterson CJ. Psychotropic action of sex hormones. Current Therapeutic Research 1974;16:1147-1168.
68. 1 syndrome: a description and related variables. Archives of General Psychiatry 1968;18:16-27.
69. Blumer D, Migeon C. Hormone and hormonal agents in the treatment of aggression. Journal of Mental and Nervous Disease 1975;160:127-137.
70. Carter Little B, Malta RJ, Zahn TP. Physiological and psychological effects of progesterone in men. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 1974;159:256-162.
71. Cooper AJ, Ismail AA, Phanjoo AL, Lone DL. Anti-androgen therapy in deviant hypersexuality. British Journal of Psychiatry 1972;102:563-579.
72. Friess E, Tagaya H, Trachsel L, Holsboer F, Rupprecht R. Progesterone-induced changes in sleep in male subjects. American Journal of Physiology 1997;272(5 Pt 1):E885-891.
73. Schulz H, Jobert M, Gee KW, Ashbrook DW. Soporific effect of the neurosteroid pregnanolone in relation to the substance's plasma level: a pilot study. Neuropsychobiology 1996;34(2):106-12.
74. A-receptor modulation. Brain Research 1993;615:267-274.
75. Wiedemann KM, Lauer CJ, Pollmächer T, Holsboer F. Sleep endocrine effects of antigluco-and antimineralocorticoids in healthy males. American Journal of Physiology 1994;274:E109-E114.
76. Wiedemann KM, Lauer CJ, Hirschmann M, Knaudt K, Holsboer F. Sleep-endocrine effects of mifepristone and megestrol acetate in healthy men. American Journal of Physiology 1998;274:E139-E145.
77. Brugge KL, Kripke DF, Ancoli-Israel S. The association of menopausal status and age with sleep disorders. Sleep Research 1989;18:208.
78. Polo-Kantola P, Erkkola R, Helenium H, Irjala K, Polo O. When does estrogen replacement therapy improve sleep quality? American Journal of Obstetric and Gynecology 1998;178(5):1002-1009.
79. Regestein QR, Schiff I, Tulchisky D, Ryan KJ. Relationships among estrogen-induced psychosociological changes in hypogonadal women. Psychosomatic Medicine 1981;43:147-155.
80. Schiff I, Regestein Q, Tulchinsky D, Ryan KJ. Effects of estrogen on sleep and psychological state of hypogonadal women. JAMA 1979;242:2405-2407.
81. Thompson J, Osswald I. Effects of estrogen on the sleep, mood, and anxiety of menopausal women. Br Med J 1977;2:1317-19.
82. Scharf MB, McDonnald MD, Stover R, Zaretsky N, Berkowitz D. Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on rates of cyclic alternating patterns and hot-flash events during sleep in postmenopausal women: a pilot study. Clinical Therapeutics 1997;19:304-311.
83. Pickett CK, Regensteiner JG, Woodward WD, Hagerman DD, Weil JV, Moore LG Progestin and estrogen reduce sleep-disordered breathing in postmenopausal women. Journal of Applied Physiology 1989;66:1656-1661.
84. Purdie DW, Empson JA, Crichton C, Macdonald L. Hormone replacement therapy, sleep quality and psychological well-being. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;102:735-739.
85. Matthews KA, Wing RR, Kuller LH, Meilahn EN, Kelsey SF. Influence of natural menopause on psychological characteristics and symptoms of middle-aged healthy women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1990;58:345-351.
86. Lugaresi E, Cirignotta F, Zucconi M. Good and poor sleepers: an epidemiological survey of San Marino population. In: Guilleminault C, Lugaresi E, eds. Sleep/wake disorders: natural history, epidemiology, and longterm evolution. New York: Raven Press, 1983.
87. Santoro N., Brown JR., Adel T., Skurnick JH. Characterization of reproductive hormonal dynamics in the perimenopause. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1996; 81: 1495-501.
88. Ballenger CB. Subjective sleep disturbance at the menopause. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1976;20:509-513.
89. Hunter M. The south-east England longitudinal study of the climacteric and postmenopause. Maturitas 1992;14:117-126.
90. Hunter M, Battersby R, Whitehead M. Relationships between psychological symptoms, somatic complaints and menopausal status. Maturitas 1986;8:217-228.
91. Asplund R, Aberg HE. Body mass index and sleep in women aged 40 to 64 years. Maturitas 1995;22:1-8.
92. Shaver JL, Paulsen VM. Sleep, psychological distress, and somatic symptoms in perimenopausal women. Family Practice Research Journal 1993;13:373-384.
93. Erlik Y, Tataryn IV, Meldrum DR. Association of waking episodes with menopausal hot flashes. JAMA 1981;245:1741-1744.
94. Shaver JL, Giblin E, Lentz M, Lee K. Sleep patterns and stability in perimenopausal women. Sleep 1988;1:556-561.
95. Woodward S, Freedman RR. The thermoregulatory effects of menopause hot flashes on sleep. Sleep 1994;17:497-501.
96. Williams RL, Karacan I, Hursch CJ. EEG of human sleep: clinical applications. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons, 1974.
97. Lee K, Shaver J. Women as subjects in sleep studies: methodological issues. Sleep Research 1985;14:271.
98. Driver HS, Dijk D, Werth E, Biedermann K, Borbely AA. Sleep and the sleep electroencephalogram across the menstrual cycle in young health women. Clinic Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:728-735.
99. Lee KA, Shaver JF, Giblin EC, Woods NF. Sleep patterns related to menstrual cycle phase and premenstrual affective symptoms. Sleep 1990;13:403-409.
100. Parry BL, Mendelson WB, Duncan WC, Sack DA, Wher TA. Longitudinal sleep EEG, temperature, and activity measurements across the menstrual cycle in patients with premenstrual depression and age matched controls. Psychiatry Research 1989;30:285-303.
101. Besset A. Sleep-related GH and PRL secretion during the menstrual cycle in normal women. In: Tigu-Mures ed. Sleep 1978;189-199. 1980;Basal Switzerland:S Karper.
102. Ishizuka Y, Usui A, Shiraishi K. A subjective evaluation of sleep during the menstrual cycle. Sleep Research 1989;18:421.
103. Ishizuka Y, Pollak CP, Shirakawa S, Usui A, Fukuzawa H, Kariya T, Azumi K, Kakuma T. Sleep spindle frequency changes during the menstrual cycle. Journal of Sleep Research 1992;3:26-29.
104. Ito M, Kohsaka M, Honma K, Fukuda N, Honma S, Katsuno Y, Kawai I, Honma H, Morita N, Miyamoto T. Changes in biological rhythm and sleep structure during the menstrual cycle in healthy women. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi - Psychiatria et Neurologia Laponica (English Abstract) 1995;97:155-164.
105. Armitage R, Yonker KA. Case report: menstrual-related very short REM latency in a healthy normal control. Sleep 1994;17:345-347.
106. Manber R, Bootzin RR. Sleep and the menstrual cycle. Health Psychology 1997;16:1-6.
107. Patkai P, Johansson G, Post B. Mood alertness and sympathetic adrenal medullary activity during the menstrual cycle. Psychosomatic Medicine 1974;36:503-512.
108. Bisdee JT, James WPT, Shaw MA. Changes in energy expenditure during the menstrual cycle. British Journal of Nutrition 1989;61:187-199.
109. Manber R, Fankhauser M, Shaheed C. The effects of the menstrual cycle on sleep of women with PMDD. Psychosocial and behavioral factors in women's health: research, prevention, treatment and service delivery in clinical and community settings. 1996; abstract.
110. Manber R, Bootzin RR, Bradley K. Menstrual cycle effects on sleep of female insomniacs. Sleep Research 1997;26:248.
111. Baird DT, Corker CS, Davidson DW, Hunter WM, Michie EA, VanLook PA. Pituitary-ovarian relationships in polycystic ovary syndrome. Journal of Endocrinology and metabolism 1977;45:794-809.
112. Manber R, Schley S, Kiel S, Pardee RE, Rider S.P, Shaheed C, Kuo T, Bootzin RR. Progesterone and sleep: A pilot study. Sleep Research 1995;24A:231.
113. Billiard M, Guilleminault C, Dement WC. A menstruation-linked periodic hypersomnia. Neurology 1975;25:436-443.
114. Sachs C, Persson H, Hagenfeldt K. Menstrual-related periodic hypersomnia: a case study with successful treatment. Neurology 1982;32:1376-1379.
115. Halbreich U, Endicott J, Nee J. Premenstrual depressive changes: value of differentiation. Archives of General Psychiatry 1983;40:535-542.
116. Moghissi KS. Prediction and detection of ovulation. Fertility and Sterility 1980;34:89-98.
117. Lee KA. Circadian temperature rhythms in relation to menstrual cycle phase. Journal of Biological Rhythms 1988;3:255-263.
118. Rogacz S, Duffy J, Ronda JM, Czeisler CA. The increase in body temperature during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle is only observed during subjective night and is independent of sleep. Sleep Research 1988;17:395.
119. Rogacz S, Duffy J, Czeisler CA. Ambulatory body temperature monitoring in ovulating women throughout the menstrual cycle. Sleep Research 1987;16:633.
120. Severino SK, Wagner ML, Hurt SW, Pollak CP, Zendell S. High nocturnal temperature in premenstrual syndrome and late luteal phase dysphoric disorder. Am Psychiatry 1991;148:1329-1335.
121. Cagnacci A, Volpe A, Paoletti AN, Melis GB. Regulation of the 24-hour rhythm of body temperature in menstrual cycles with spontaneous and gonadotropin-induced ovulation. Fertility and Sterility 1997;68:421-425.
122. Nakayama K, Yoshimuta N, Sasaki Y, Kadokura M, Hiyama T, Takeda A, Sasaki M, Ushijima S. Diurnal rhythm in body temperature in different phases of the menstrual cycle. Japanese Journal of Psychiatry and Neurology 1992;46:235-237.
123. Veith S, Kohler WK, Fey P, Schmidt KP, Fleissner G The influence of the menstrual cycle on the female circadian system. Society for Light Treatment and Biological Rhythms Abstracts 1993;5:50.
124. Parry BL, Udell C, Elliot JA, Berga SL, Klauber MR, Mostofi N, LeVeau B, Gillin C. Blunted phase-shift response to morning bright light in premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Journal of Biological Rhythms 1997;12:443-456.
125. Israel SL, Schneller O. Thermogenic property of progesterone. Fertility and Sterility 1950;1:53-64.
126. Hessemer V, Bruck K. Influence of menstrual cycle on shivering, skin blood flow, and sweating responses measured at night. Journal of Applied Physiology 1985;59:1902-1910.
127. Hessemer V, Bruck K. Influence of menstrual cycle on thermoregulator, metabolic, and heart rate responses to exercise at night. Journal of Applied Physiology 1985;59:1911-1917.
128. Rothchild I, Barnes AC. The effects of dosage, and of estrogens, androgen or salicylate administration on the degree of body temperature elevation induced by progesterone. Endocrinology 1952;50:485-496.
129. Alber HE. Gonadal hormones organize and modulate the circadian system of the rat. American Journal of Physiology, 1981;241:305-306.
130. Morin LP, Fitzgerald KM, Zucker I. Estradiol shortens the period of hamster circadian rhythms. Science 1977;196:305-306.
131. Takahashi JS, Menacher M. Interaction of estradiol and progesterone: effects on circadian locomotor rhythm of female golden hamsters. American Journal of Physiology, 1980;239:R497-504.
132. Gerall AA, Napoli AM, Cooper UC. Daily and hourly estrous running in intact, spayed, and estrone implanted rats. Physiology and Behavior, 1973;10:225-229.
133. Reinberg A, Andlauer P, Guillet P, Nicolai A. Oral temperature, circadian rhythm amplitude, aging, and tolerance to shift-work. Ergonomics 1980;23:55-64.
134. Wever RA. The circadian system of man. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1979.
135. Atkinson G, Goldwells A, Reilly T, Watehouse JA. A comparison of circadian rhythm in work performance between physically active and inactive subjects. Ergonomics 1993;36:273-281.
136. Mellette HC, Hutt BK, Askovitz SI, Norvath SM. Diurnal variations in body temperatures. Journal of Applied Physiology 1951;3:665-675.
137. Wagner DR, Moline ML, Pollak CP. Internal desynchronization of circadian rhythms in free-running young females occurs at specific phases of the menstrual cycle. Sleep Research 1989;18:449.
138. Penny R, Stancyk F, Goebelsman U. Melatonin: Data consistent with a role of controlling ovarian function. Journal of Endocrinology Investigation 1987;10:499-505.
139. Luboshitzky R, Dharan M, Goldman D, Herer P, Hiss Y, Lavie P. Seasonal variation of gonadotropins and gonadal steroid receptors in the human pineal gland. Brain Research Bulletin 1997;44:665-670.
140. Webley GE, Leidenberger F. The circadian pattern of melatonin and its positive relationship with progesterone in women. Endocrinol Metab 1986;63(2):323-328.
141. Brzezinski A, Lynch HJ, Seibel MM, Wurtman RJ. Possible contribution of melatonin to the timing of the luteinizing hormone surge. N Engl Med 1987;316:1550.
142. Wetterberg L, Arendt J, Paunier L, Sizonenko PC, Van Donselaar W, Heyden T. Human serum melatonin changes during the menstrual cycle. J Clini Endocrinol Metab 1976;42:185.
143. Berga SL, Yen SSC. Circadian pattern of plasma melatonin concentrations during four phases of the human menstrual cycle. Neuroendocrinology 1990;51:606-612.
144. Delfs TM, Baars S, Fock C, Schumacher M, Olcese J, Zimmermann RC. Sex steroids do not alter melatonin secretion in the human. Human Reproduction 1994;9:49-54.
145. McIntyre IM, Morse C. Urinary 6-sulphatoxy melatonin levels within the menstrual cycle in patients with premenstrual syndrome. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1990;15:233-236.
146. Parry BL, Berga SL, Mostofi N, Klauber MR, Resnick A. Plasma melatonin circadian rhythms during the menstrual cycle and after light therapy in premenstrual dysphoric disorder and normal control subjects. Journal of Biological Rhythms 1997;12:47-64.
147. Cagnacci A, Soldani R, Laughlin GA, Yen SS. Modification of circadian body temperature rhythm during the luteal menstrual phase: role of melatonin. Journal of Applied Physiology 1996;80:25-29.
148. Penny R, Goebelsman U. Effect of estradiol on plasma melatonin levels. J Endocrinol Investi 1984;7:5-57.
149. Tang PL, Tang G, Pang SF. Effects of gonadotropins on plasma melatonin levels in human females. Neuroscience Letters 1984;16:S28.
150. Voordouw BCG, Euser R, Versonk RER, Alberda BT, DeJong FH, Drogendijk AC, Fauser BCJ, Cohen M. Melatonin and melatonin-progestin combinations alter pituitary-ovarian function in women and can inhibit ovulation. J Clini Endocrinol Metab 1992;74:108-117.
151. Cagnacci A, Soldani R, Yen SS. Exogenous melatonin enhances luteinizing hormone levels of women in the follicular but not in the luteal menstrual phase. Fertility and Sterility 1995;80:996-999.
152. Guilleminault C, Quera-Salva MA, Partinen M, Jamieson A. Women and obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 1988;93:104-109.
153. Bearpark H, Elliot L, Grunstein R, Hender J, Cullen S, Schneider H, Althaus W, Sullivan C. Occurrence and correlates of sleep disordered breathing in the australian town of busselto: a preliminary analysis. Sleep 1993;16:S3-S5.
154. Redline S, Kump K, Tishler PV, Browner I, Ferrette V. Gender differences in sleep disordered breathing in a community-based sample. American Journal of Respiratory & Critical Care Medicine 1994;149:722-726.
155. Young T. Analytic epidemiology studies of sleep-disordered breathing what explains the gender difference in sleep-disordered breathing? Sleep 1993;16:S1-S2.
156. Block AJ, Wynne JW, Boysen PG, Lindsey S, Martin C, Canton B. Menopause, medroxyprogesterone and breathing during sleep. Am J Med 1981;70:506-510.
157. Collop NA. Medroxyprogesterone acetate and ethanol-induced exacerbation of obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 1994;106:792-799.
158. Stahl ML, Orr WC, Males JL. Progesterone levels and sleep-related breathing during menstrual cycles of normal women. Sleep 1985;8:227-230.
159. Popovic RM, White DP. Upper airway muscle activity in normal women: influence of hormonal status. Journal of Applied Physiology 1998;84(3):1055-1062.
160. Guilleminault C, Stoohs R, Kim YD, Chevrin R, Black J, Clerk A. Upper airway sleep-disordered breathing in women. An Intern Med 1995;122:493-501.
161. Wagner DR, Zindel S, Hurt S, Pollak CP, Severino S, Moline ML. Circadian temperature phase variability and the menstrual cycle. Sleep Research 1992;21:391.
162. Mauri M, Reid RL, MacLean AW. Sleep in the premenstrual phase: a self-report study of PMS patients and normal controls. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 1988;78:82-86.
163. Heller W. Gender differences in depression: perspectives from neuropsychology. Journal of Affective Disorders 1993;29:129-143.
164. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Swartz M, Blazer DG, Nelson CB. Sex and depression in the national comorbidity survey. I: lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. Journal of Affective Disorders 1993;29:85-96.
165. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S, Nelson CB, Hughes M, Eshleman S, Wittchen HU, Kendler KS. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 1994;51:8-19.
166. Weissman MM, Wickramaratne P, Merikanga KR, Leckman JF, Prusoff BA, Caruso KA, Kidd KK, Gammon GD. Onset of major depression in early adulthood. Increased familial loading and specificity. Archives of General Psychiatry 1984;41:1136-1143.
167. Akil H, Haskett RF, Young EA, Grunhaus L, Kuton J, Weinberg V, Greden J, Watson SJ. Multiple HPA profiles in endogenous depression: effect of age and sex on cortisol and beta-endorphin. Biological Psychiatry 1993;33:73-85.
168. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Sex difference in unipolar depression: evidence and theory. Psychology Bulletin 1987;101:259-282.
169. Armitage R. Microarchitectural findings in sleep EEG in depression: diagnostic implications. Biological Psychiatry 1995;37:72-84.
170. Reynolds CF III, Kupfer DJ. Sleep research in affective illness: state of the art circa 1987. Sleep 1987;10:199-215.
171. Reynolds CF III, Kupfer DJ, Thase ME, Frank E, Jarrett DB, Coble PA, Hoch CC, Buysse DJ, Simons AD, Houck PR. Sleep, gender, and depression: an analysis of gender effects on the electroencephalographic sleep of 302 depressed outpatients. Biological Psychiatry 1990;28:673-684.
172. Healy, D. Rhythm and blues. Neurochemical, neuropharmacological and neuropsychological implications of hypothesis of circadian rhythm dysfunction in affective disorders. Psychopharmacology 1987;93:271-285.
173. Wehr TA, Wirz-Justice A. Circadian rhythm mechanisms in affective illness and in antidepressant drug action. Pharmacopsychiatry 1982;15:31-39.
174. Wehr TA, Wirz-Justice A, Goodwin FK, Dunean W, Gillin JC. Phase advance of the circadian sleep-wake cycle as an antidepressant. Science 1979;206:710-713.
175. Souetre E, Salvati E, Belugou JL, Pringuey D, Candito M, Krebs B, Ardisson JL, Darcourt G. Circadian rhythms in depression and recovery: evidence for blunted amplitude as the main chronobiological abnormality. Psychiatry Research 1989;28:268-278.
176. Beersma DGM, Daan S, Van den Hoofdakker RH. Distribution of REM latencies and other sleep phenomena in depression as explained by a single ultradian rhythm disturbance. Sleep 1984;7:126-136.
177. Jarrett DB, Coble PA, Kupfer DJ. Reduced cortisol latency in depressive illness. Archives of General Psychiatry 1983;40(5):506-11.
178. Linkowsky P, Mendlewicz J, Kerkhofs M, Leclercq R, Golstein J, Brasseur M, Copinschi G, Van Cauter E. 24-hour profiles of adrenocorticotropin, cortisol, and growth hormone in major depressive illness: effect of antidepressant treatment. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 1987;65(1):141-52.
179. Steiger A, Von Bardeleben U, Wiedemann K, Holsboer F. Sleep EEG and nocturnal secretion of testosterone and cortisol in patients with major endogenous depression during acute phase and after remission. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1991;25:169-177.
180. Armitage R, Hudson A, Trivedi M, Rush AJ. Sex differences in the distribution of EEG frequencies during sleep: unipolar depressed outpatients. Journal of Affective Disorders 1995;34:121-129.
181. Armitage R, Hoffmann R, Trivedi M, Rush AJ. Sleep macro-and microarchitecture in depression: age and gender effects. Sleep Research 1997;26:283.
182. Armitage R. The distribution of EEG frequencies in REM and NREM sleep stages in healthy young adults. Sleep 1995;18:334-341.
183. Janowsky DS, Halbreigh U, Rausch J. Association among ovarian hormones, other hormones, emotional disorders, and neurotransmitters. In: Jensvold MF, Halbreigh U, Hamilton JA, eds. Psychopharmacology and women: sex, gender, and hormones. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc. 1996:929-935.
184. Yonkers KA, Kando JC, Cole JO, Blumenthal S. Gender differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of psychotropic medication. American Journal of Psychiatry 1992;149:587-595.
185. Janowsky DS, Fann WE, Davis JM. Monoamines and ovarian hormone-linked sexual and emotional changes. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1971;1:205-218.