Nutritional and metabolic effects of alcoholism: Their relationship with alcoholic liver disease

Nutrition

Volumn 15, Issue 7-8, 1999, Pages 583-589

  Bunout, Daniel ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHILE   (Chile)

Author keywords

Alcoholic liver disease; Alcoholism; Microsomal induction; Nutrition; Obesity

Indexed keywords

ACYL COENZYME A DESATURASE; ALCOHOL; GLUCOSE; INSULIN; INTERLEUKIN 1; LIPID; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ALCOHOL LIVER DISEASE; ALCOHOLISM; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPOGLYCEMIA; LIPID LIVER LEVEL; LIPID METABOLISM; LIPID PEROXIDATION; LIPOLYSIS; LIVER MICROSOME; METABOLISM; MONOCYTE; NITROGEN BALANCE; NONHUMAN; NUTRITION; OBESITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN METABOLISM; REVIEW;

ALCOHOLISM; ANIMALS; ANOXIA; CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; ETHANOL; FATTY ACIDS; HUMANS; LIPID METABOLISM; LIPID PEROXIDATION; LIVER DISEASES, ALCOHOLIC; NUTRITION PHYSIOLOGY; OBESITY; OXIDATION-REDUCTION; PROTEINS; RATS;

EID: 0033166152     PISSN: 08999007     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0899-9007(99)00090-8     Document Type: Review

References (133)

1. Diehl A.M. Alcoholic liver disease. Med Clin North Am. 73:1989;815.
2. Lelbach W.K. Dose-effect relationship in alcohol induced liver damage. German Med Monthly. 2:1972;116.
3. Thurman R.G., Bradford B.U., Iimuro Y., et al. Role of Kupffer cells, endotoxin and free radicals in hepatotoxicity due to prolonged alcohol consumption studies in female and male rats . J Nutr. 127:1997;903S.
4. Morgan M.Y., Sherlock S. Sex related differences among 100 patients with alcoholic liver disease. Br Med J. 1:1977;939.
5. Llop E., Hirsch S., De la Maza P., et al. El sistema de histocompatibilidad como factor de riesgo de la enfermedad hepática. Rev Med Chile. 123:1995;687.
6. Kitson K.E. Ethanol and acetaldehyde metabolism past, present and future . Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 20:1996;82A.
7. Lumeng L., Crabb D.W. Genetic aspects and risk factors in alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease. Gastroenterology. 107:1994;572.
8. Arnon R., Degli Esposti S., Zern M.A. Molecular biological aspects of alcohol induced liver disease. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 19:1995;247.
9. Chao Y.C., Young T.H., Tang H.S., Hsu C.T. Alcoholism and alcoholic organ damage and genetic polymorphisms of alcohol metabolizing enzymes in Chinese patients. Hepatology. 25:1997;112.
10. Morgan M.Y. Alcohol and nutrition. Br Med Bull. 38:1982;21.
11. Pirola R.C., Lieber C.S. The energy cost of the metabolism of drugs, including ethanol. Pharmacology. 7:1972;185.
12. Suter P.M., Schutz Y., Jequier E. The effect of ethanol on fat storage in healthy subjects. N Engl J Med. 326:1992;983.
13. Lands W.E.M. Alcohol and energy intake. Am J Clin Nutr. 62:1995;1101S.
14. Jhangiani S.S., Agarwal N., Holmes R., et al. Energy expenditure in chronic alcoholics with and without liver disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 44:1986;323.
15. Green P.H.R. Alcohol, nutrition and malabsorption. Clin Gastroenterol. 12:1983;563.
16. Leevy C.M., Baker H. Metabolic and nutritional effects of alcoholism. Arch Environ Health. 7:1963;453.
17. Leo M.A., Lieber C.S. Interaction of ethanol with vitamin A. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 7:1983;15.
18. Linder M.C. Other trace elements and the liver. Sem Liver Dis. 4:1984;264.
19. Freinkel N., Singer D.I., Arky R.A. Alcohol hypoglycemia. Carbohydrate metabolism of patients with clinical alcohol hypoglycemia and the experimental reproduction of the syndrome with ethanol. J Clin Invest. 42:1963;1112.
20. Nyboe A.B., Hagen C., Faber O.K., et al. Glucose tolerance and B cell function in chronic alcoholism its relation to hepatic histology and exocrine pancreatic function . Metabolism. 32:1983;1029.
21. Shelmet J.J., Reichard G.A., Skutches C.L., et al. Ethanol causes acute inhibition of carbohydrate, fat and protein oxidation and insulin resistence. J Clin Invest. 81:1988;1137.
22. Bunout D., Petermann M., Bravo M., et al. Glucose turnover rate and peripheral insulin sensitivity in alcoholic patients without liver damage. Ann Nutr Metab. 33:1989;31.
23. Iturriaga H., Kelly M., Bunout D., et al. Glucose tolerance and the insulin response in recently drinking alcoholic patients possible effects of withdrawal . Metabolism. 35:1986;238.
24. Petermann M., Gonzalez C., Hirsch S., et al. Leucine and glucose turnover in chronic alcoholics during early abstinence and after an ethanol load. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 17:1993;1925.
25. Mezey E. Intestinal function in chronic alcoholism. Ann NY Acad Sci. 252:1975;215.
26. Rodrigo C., Antezana C., Baraona E. Fat and nitrogen balances with alcohol induced fatty liver. J Nutr. 101:1971;1307.
27. Reinus J.F., Heymsfield S.B., Wiskind R., Casper K., Galambos J.T. Ethanol relative fuel value and metabolic effects in vivo . Metabolism. 38:1989;125.
28. Bunout D., Petermann M., Ugarte G., Barrera G., Iturriaga H. Nitrogen economy in alcoholic patients without liver disease. Metabolism. 36:1987;651.
29. Song S.K., Rubin E. Ethanol produces muscle damage in human volunteers. Science. 175:1972;327.
30. Urbano-Marquez A., Estruch R., Navarro-López F., et al. The effects of alcoholism on skeletal and cardiac muscle. N Engl J Med. 320:1989;409.
31. Dinarello C.A., Mier J.W. Lymphokines. N Engl J Med. 317:1987;940.
32. Jones D.P., Perman E.S., Lieber C.S. Free fatty acid turnover and triglyceride metabolism after ethanol ingestion in man. J Lab Clin Med. 66:1965;804.
33. Hirsch S., De la Maza P., Petermann M., Bunout D. Lipid turnover in alcoholics before and after an ethanol load. Nutrition. 14:1998;437.
34. Akanji A.O., Hockaday T.D.R. Acetate tolerance and the kinetics of acetate utilization in diabetic and non diabetic subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 51:1990;112.
35. Palmer J.P. Alcoholic ketoacidosis. Clinical and laboratory presentation, patophysiology and treatment. Clin Endocrinol Metab. 12:1983;321.
36. Steinberg D., Pearson T.A., Kuller L.H. Alcohol and atherosclerosis. Ann Intern Med. 114:1991;967.
37. Contaldo F., D'Arrigo E., Carandente V., et al. Short term effects of moderate alcohol consumption on lipid metabolism and energy balance in normal men. Metabolism. 38:1989;166.
38. Haber P.S., Wilson J.S., Apte M.V., et al. Lipid intolerance does not account for susceptibility to alcoholic and gallstone pancreatitis. Gastroenterology. 106:1994;742.
39. Lau P.P., Cahill D.J., Zhu H.J., Chan L. Ethanol modulates apolipoprotein B mRNA editing in the rat. J Lipid Res. 36:1995;2069.
40. Gaziano J.M., Buring J.E., Breslow J.L., et al. Moderate alcohol intake, increased levels of high density lipoprotein and its subfractions, and decreased risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 329:1993;1829.
41. Croft K.D., Puddey I.B., Rakic V., et al. Oxidative susceptibility of low density lipoproteins. Influence of regular alcohol use. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 20:1996;980.
42. Dan L., Laposate M. Ethyl palmitate and ethyl oleate are the predominant fatty acyl esters in the blood after ethanol ingestion and their synthesis is differentially influenced by the extracellular concentrations of their corresponding fatty acids. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 21:1997;286.
43. Lieber C.S. Metabolism and metabolic effects of ethanol. Semin Liver Dis. 1:1981;189.
44. Israel Y., Videla L., Bernstein J. Liver hypermetabolic state after chronic ethanol consumption. Hormonal interrelations and pathogenic implications. Fed Proc. 34:1975;2052.
45. Morimoto M., Hagbjörk A.L., Wan Y.J.Y., et al. Modulation of experimental alcohol induced liver disease by cytochrome P450 2E1 inhibitors. Hepatology. 21:1995;1610.
46. Lieber C.S. Role of oxidative stress and antioxidant therapy in alcoholic and non alcoholic liver diseases. Adv Pharmacol. 38:1997;601.
47. Weltman M.D., Farrell G.C., Liddle C. Increased hepatocyte CYP2E1 expression in a rat nutritional model of hepatic steatosis with inflammation. Gastroenterology. 111:1996;1645.
48. Ji S., Lemasters J.J., Christenson V., Thurman R.G. Periportal and pericentral pyridine nucleotide fluorescence from the surface of the perfused liver evaluation of the hypothesis that chronic treatment with ethanol produces pericentral hypoxia . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 79:1982;5415.
49. Israel Y., Kalant H., Orrego H., et al. Experimental alcohol induced hepatic necrosis suppression by propylthiouracil . Proc Natl Acad Sci. 72:1975;1137.
50. Arteel G.E., Iimuro Y., Yin M., Raleigh J.A., Thurman R.G. Chronic enteral ethanol treatment causes hypoxia in rat liver tissue in vivo. Hepatology. 25:1997;920.
51. Iimuro Y., Ikejima K., Rose M.L., Bradford B.U., Thurman R.G. Nimodipine, a dihydropyridine-type calcium channel blocker, prevents alcoholic hepatitis caused by chronic intragastric ethanol exposure in the rat. Hepatology. 24:1996;391.
52. Carmichael F.J., Saldivia V., Israel Y., et al. Ethanol induced increase in portal hepatic blood flow interference by anesthetic agents . Hepatology. 7:1987;89.
53. Tsukamoto H., Xi X.P. Incomplete compensation of enhanced hepatic oxygen consumption in rats with alcoholic centrilobular liver necrosis. Hepatology. 9:1989;302.
54. Silva G., Fluxa F., Bresky G., et al. Splachnic and systemic hemodynamics in early abstinence and after ethanol administration in non-cirrhotic alcoholic patients. J Hepatol. 20:1994;494.
55. Luca A., Carcia Pagan J.C., Bosch J., et al. Effects of ethanol consumption on hepatic hemodynamics in patients with alcoholic cirrhosis. Gastroenterology. 112:1997;1284.
56. Bunout D., Moya P., De la Maza P., et al. Suprahepatic vein oxygen tension in alcoholics with severe and mild liver damage. Dig Dis Sci. 40:1995;1243.
57. Orrego H., Blake J.E., Blendis L.M., Compton K.V., Israel Y. Long term treatment of alcoholic liver disease with propylthiouracil. N Engl J Med. 317:1987;1421.
58. Chen J.J., Schenker S., Henderson G.I. 4-hydroxynonenal levels are enhanced in fetal liver mitochondria by in utero ethanol exposure. Hepatology. 25:1997;142.
59. Speisky H., Bunout D., Orrego H., et al. Lack of changes in diene conjugate levels following ethanol induced glutathione depletion or hepatic necrosis. Res Comm Chem Pathol Pharmacol. 48:1985;77.
60. Castillo T., Koop D.R., Kamimura S., et al. Role of cytochrome P-450 2E1 in ethanol, carbon tetrachloride and iron dependent microsomal lipid peroxidation. Hepatology. 16:1992;992.
61. Zidenberg-Cherr S., Olin K., Villanueva J., et al. Ethanol induced changes in hepatic free radical defense mechanisms and fatty acid composition in the miniature pig. Hepatology. 13:1991;1185.
62. Kurose I., Higuchi H., Kato S., et al. Oxidative stress on mitochondira and cell membrane of cultured rat hepatocytes and perfused liver exposed to ethanol. Gastroenterology. 112:1997;1331.
63. Müller A., Sies H. Role of alcohol dehydrogenase activity and of aceltadehyde in ethanol induced ethane and pentane production by isolated perfused rat liver. Biochem J. 206:1982;153.
64. Shaw S., Rubin K.R., Lieber C.S. Depressed hepatic glutathione and increased diene conjugates in alcoholic liver disease. Evidence of lipid peroxidation. Dig Dis Sci. 28:1983;585.
65. Videla L., Iturriaga H., Pino M.E., et al. Content of hepatic reduced glutathione in chronic alcoholic patients influence of the length of abstinence and liver necrosis . Clin Sci. 66:1984;283.
66. Rouach H., Fataccioli V., Gentil M., et al. Effects of ethanol feeding on lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation in relation to liver pathology. Hepatology. 25:1997;351.
67. Valerio L.G., Parks T., Petersen D.R. Alcohol mediates increases in hepatic and serum nonheme iron stores in a rat model for alcohol induced liver injury. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 20:1996;1352.
68. Kurose I., Higuchi H., Miura S., Saito H., et al. Oxidative stress mediated apoptosis of hepatocytes exposed to acute ethanol intoxication. Hepatology. 25:1997;368.
69. Hirano T., Kaplowitz N., Tsukamoto H., et al. Hepatic mitochondrial glutathione depletion and progression of experimental alcoholic liver disease in rats. Hepatology. 16:1992;1423.
70. García Ruiz C., Morales A., Coleli A., et al. Feeding S-adenosyl-L-methionine attenuates both ethanol induced depletion of mitochondrial glutathione and mitochondrial dysfunction in periportal and perivenous rat hepatocytes. Hepatology. 21:1995;207.
71. García , Ruiz C., Morales A., Ballesta A., et al. Effect of chronic ethanol feeding in glutathione and functional integrity of mitochondria in periportal and perivenous rat hepatocytes. J Clin Invest. 94:1994;193.
72. Savolainen V.T., Pajarinen J., Perola M., Pentilä A., Karhunen P.J. Glutathione S transferase GST M1 "Null" genotype and the risk of alcoholic liver disease. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 20:1996;1340.
73. Lecompte E., Herbeth B., Pirollet P., et al. Effect of alcohol consumption on blood antioxidant nutrients and oxidative stress. Am J Clin Nutr. 60:1994;255.
74. Capel I.D., Frances Willenbrock J.F.F., Jenner M., Williamns D.C. The effect of ethanol ingestion on the erythrocyte antioxidant defense systems of rats. Biochem Pharmacol. 29:1980;1737.
75. Clot P., Parola M., Bellomo G., et al. Plasma membrane hydroxyethyl radical adducts cause antibody dependent cytotoxicity in rat hepatocytes exposed to alcohol. Gastroenterology. 113:1997;265.
76. Fromenty B., Grimpert S., Mansouri A., et al. Hepatic mitochondrial DNA depletion in alcoholics association with microvesicular steatosis . Gastroenterology. 108:1995;193.
77. Eriksson C.J.P., Fukunaga T. Human blood acetaldehyde (update 1992). Alcohol Alcohol. (suppl 2):1993;9.
78. Lin R.C., Shahidi S., Kelly T.J. Measurement of hemoglobin acetaldehyde adduct in alcoholic patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 17:1993;669.
79. Israel Y., Hurwitz E., Niemelä O., Arnon R. Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies against acetaldehyde-containing epitopes in acetaldehyde-protein adducts. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 83:1986;7923.
80. Niemelä O., Juvonen T., Parkkila S. Immunohistochemical demonstration of acetaldehyde modified epitopes in human liver after alcohol consumption. J Clin Invest. 87:1991;1367.
81. Imperiale T.F., McCullough A.J. Do corticosteroids reduce mortality from alcoholic hepatitis? A meta analysis of the randomized trials. Ann Intern Med. 113:1990;299.
82. Crouse J.R., Gerson C.D., DeCarli L., Lieber C.S. Role of acetate in the reduction of plasma free fatty acids produced by ethanol in man. J Lipid Res. 9:1968;509.
83. Nilsson N.O., Belfrage P. Effects of acetate, acetaldehyde and ethanol on lipolysis in isolated rat hepatocytes. J Lipid Res. 19:1978;737.
84. Yki-Järvinen H., Koivisto V.A., Ylikahri R., Taskinen M.-R. Acute effects of ethanol and acetate on glucose kinetics in normal subjects. Am J Physiol. 254:1988;E175.
85. Hirsch S., Muñoz C., De la Maza P., et al. Increased cytokine production is associated with acute inflammation in cirrhotic alcoholic patients. Internat Hepatol Comm. 6:1997;166.
86. Mendenhall C., Moritz T.E., Roselle G.A., et al. Protein energy malnutrition in severe alcoholic hepatitis diagnosis and response to treatment . JPEN. 19:1995;258.
87. Bunout D., Gattas V., Iturriaga H., et al. Nutritional status of alcoholic patients its possible relationship to alcoholic liver damage . Am J Clin Nutr. 38:1983;469.
88. Iturriaga H., Bunout D., Hirsch S., Ugarte G. Overweight as a risk factor or predictive sign of histological liver damage in alcoholics. Am J Clin Nutr. 47:1988;235.
89. Naveau S., Giraud V., Borotto E., et al. Excess weight risk factor for alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology. 25:1997;108.
90. Neuschwander-Tetri B.A., Bacon B.R. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Med Clin North Am. 80:1996;1147.
91. Bacon B.R., Farahvash M.J., Janey C.G., Neuschwander-Tetri B.A. Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis an expanded clinical entity . Gastroenterology. 107:1994;1103.
92. Teli M.R., James O.F.W., Burt A.D., et al. The natural history of nonalcoholic fatty liver a follow up study . Hepatology. 22:1995;1714.
93. Laurin J., Lindor K.D., Crippin J.S., et al. Ursodeoxycholic acid or clofibrate in the treatment of non-alcohol-induced steatohepatitis. Hepatology. 23:1996;1464.
94. Capron J.P., Delamarre J., Dupas J.L., et al. Fasting in obesity another cause of liver injury with alcoholic hyaline? Dig Dis Sci. 27:1982;265.
95. Allam C., Bala'a M., Shamma'a M. Evolution of liver disease in morbid obesity after small intestinal bypass and its restoration. A case report. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 107:1983;195.
96. Song B.J. Ethanol inducible cytochrome P450 biochemistry, molecular biology and clinical relevance (1996 update) . Alcoholism Clin Exp Res. 20:1996;138A.
97. Felver M.E., Mezey E., McGuire M., et al. Plasma tumor necrosis factor α predicts decreased long term survival in severe alcoholic hepatitis. Alcoholism Clin Exp Res. 14:1990;255.
98. Khoruts A., Stahnke L., Mcclain C.J., Logan G., Allen J.I. Circulating tumor necrosis factor, interleukin 1 and interleukin 6 concentration in chronic alcoholic patients. Hepatology. 13:1991;267.
99. D'Souza N.B., Bagby G.J., Nelson S., Lang C.H., Spitzer J.J. Acute alcohol infusion suppresses endotoxin-induced serum tumor necrosis factor. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 13:1989;295.
100. Wang Y., Huang D.S., Watson R.R. Dietary vitamin E modulation of cytokine production by splenocytes and thymocytes from alcohol fed mice. Alcoholism Clin Exp Res. 18:1994;355.
101. Triger D.R. Endotoxemia in liver disease - time for re-appraisal? J Hepatol. 12:1991;136.
102. Thurman R.G., Bradford B.U., Iimuro Y., et al. Role of Kupffer cells, endotoxin and free radicals in hepatotoxicity due to prolonged alcohol consumption studies in female and male rats . J Nutr. 127:1997;903S.
103. Ishii H. Oxidative stress in alcoholic liver injury. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 20:1996;162A.
104. Hirsch S., Chavez G., Gotteland M., et al. Permeabilidad intestinal en alcohólicos sin daño hepático. Rev Med Chile. 125:1997;653.
105. Rockey D. The cellular pathogenesis of portal hypertension stellate cell contractility, endothelin and nitric oxide . Hepatology. 25:1997;2.
106. Zucali J.R., Dinarello C.A., Oblon D.J., et al. Interleukin-1 stimulates fibroblasts to produce granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating activity and prostaglandin E2. J Clin Invest. 77:1986;1857.
107. Feingold K.R., Grunfeld C. Tumor necrosis factor alpha stimulates hepatic lipogenesis in the rat in vivo. J Clin Invest. 80:1987;184.
108. Feingold K.R., Soued M., Serio K., et al. Multiple cytokines stimulate lipid synthesis in vivo. Endocrinology. 125:1989;267.
109. Kern P.A., Saghizadeh M., Ong J.M., et al. The expression of tumor necrosis factor in human adipose tissue. Regulation by obesity, weight loss and relationship to lipoprotein lipase. J Clin Invest. 95:1995;2111.
110. Bunout D., Muñoz C., López M., et al. Interleukin 1 and tumor necrosis factor in obese alcoholics compared with normal weight patients. Am J Clin Nutr. 63:1996;373.
111. Raucy J., Lasker J.M., Kraner J.C., et al. Induction of cytochrome P4502E1 on the obese overfed rat. Mol Pharmacol. 39:1991;275.
112. Hong J., Pan J., González F.J., Gelboin H.V., Yang C.S. The induction of a specific form of cytochrome P-450 (P450j) by fasting. Biochem Biophys Res Comm. 142:1987;1077.
113. O'Shea D., Davis S.N., Kim R.B., Wilkinson G.R. Effect of fasting and obesity in humans on the 6-hydroxylation of chlorzoxazone a putative probe of CYP2E1 activity . Clin Pharmacol Ther. 56:1994;359.
114. Yun E.P., Casazza J.P., Sohn D.H., et al. Pretranslational activation of cytochrome P450IIE during ketosis induced by a high fat diet. Mol Pharmacol. 41:1991;474.
115. Song B.J., Veech R.L., Park S.S., et al. Induction of rat hepatic N-nitrosodimethylamine demethylase by acetone is due to protein stabilization. J Biol Chem. 264:1989;3568.
116. Tsukamoto H., French S.W., Benson N., et al. Severe and progressive steatosis and focal necrosis in rat induced by continuous intragastric infusion of ethanol and low fat diet. Hepatology. 5:1985;224.
117. Nanji A.A., Mendenhall C., French S.W. Beef fat prevents alcoholic liver disease in the rat. Alcoholism Clin Exp Res. 13:1989;15.
118. Morimoto M., Reitz R.C., Morin R.J., et al. CYP2E1 inhibitors partially ameliorate the changes in hepatic fatty acid composition induced in rats by chronic administration of ethanol and high fat diet. J Nutr. 125:1995;2953.
119. Nanji A.A., Sadrazadeh H., Yang E.K., et al. Dietary saturated fatty acids a novel treatment for alcoholic liver disease . Gastroenterology. 109:1995;547.
120. Salem N. Alcohol, fatty acids and diet. Alcohol Health Res World. 13:1989;211.
121. Nanji A.A., Zhao S., Lamb R., et al. Changes in microsomal phospholipases and arachidonic acid in experimental alcohol liver injury relationship to cytochrome P-450 2E1 induction and conjugated diene formation . Alcoholism Clin Exp Res. 17:1993;598.
122. Nanji A.A., Khwaja S., Rahemtulla A., et al. Thromboxane inhibitors attenuate pathological changes in alcoholic liver disease in the rat. Gastroenterology. 112:1997;200.
123. French S.W., Morimoto M., Reitz R.C., et al. Lipid peroxidation, CYP2E1 and arachidonic acid metabolism in alcoholic liver disease in rats. J Nutr. 127:1997;907S.
124. Lieber C.S., Robins S.J., Li J., et al. Phosphatidylcholine protects against fibrosis and cirrhosis in the baboon. Gastroenterology. 106:1994;152.
125. Lieber C.S., Leo M., Aleynik S.I., Aleynik M.K., DeCarli L.M. Polyenylphosphatidylcholine decreased alcohol induced oxidative stress in the baboon. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 21:1997;375.
126. Alling C., Dencker S.J., Svennerholm L., Tichy J. Serum fatty acid pattern in chronic alcoholics after acute abuse. Acta Med Scand. 185:1969;99.
127. Cairns S.R., Peters T.J. Biochemical analysis of hepatic lipid in alcoholic and diabetic and control subjects. Clin Sci. 65:1983;645.
128. De la Maza P., Hirsch S., Nieto S., et al. Fatty acid composition of liver total lipids in alcoholic patients with and without liver damage. Alcoholism. 20:1996;1418.
129. Nanji A.A., Sadrzadeh H., Dannenberg A.J. Liver microsomal fatty acid composition in ethanol fed rats effect of different dietary fats and relationship to liver injury . Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 18:1994;1024.
130. Nakamura M.T., Tang A.B., Villanueva J., et al. Selective reduction of Δ-5 and Δ-6 desaturase activities but not Δ-9 desaturase in micropigs chronically fed ethanol. J Clin Invest. 93:1994;450.
131. Mavrelis P.G., Ammon H.V., Gleysteen J.J., et al. Hepatic free fatty acids in alcoholic liver disease and morbid obesity. Hepatology. 3:1983;226.
132. De la Maza P., Petermann M., Bunout D., Hirsch S. Effects of long term vitamin E supplementation in alcoholic cirrhosis. J Am Coll Nutr. 14:1995;192.
133. Kharasch D.E., Thummel K.E., Mhyre J., Lillibridge J.H. Single dose disulfiram inhibition of chlorzoxazone metabolism a clinical probe for P4502E1 . Clin Pharmacol Ther. 53:1993;643.