Extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields (EMF) and brain cancer in adults and children: Review and comment

Neuro-Oncology

Volumn 1, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 212-220

  Gurney, James G ^a,c   Van Wijngaarden, Edwin ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^b IL   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM; FREE RADICAL; MELATONIN;

ADULT; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; BRAIN TUMOR; CELL TRANSFORMATION; CHILD; CLUSTER ANALYSIS; COCARCINOGENESIS; DEMOGRAPHY; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PHYSIOLOGY; RADIATION; RADIATION EXPOSURE; RADIATION INJURY; REVIEW; RISK; SECRETION; UNITED STATES;

ADULT; BRAIN NEOPLASMS; CALCIUM; CELL TRANSFORMATION, NEOPLASTIC; CHILD; CLUSTER ANALYSIS; COCARCINOGENESIS; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FREE RADICALS; HUMANS; MELATONIN; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; NEOPLASMS, RADIATION-INDUCED; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; RADIATION, NONIONIZING; RESIDENCE CHARACTERISTICS; RISK; SECRETORY RATE; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033157160     PISSN: 15228517     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/1.3.212     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. Adey, W.R. (1993) Biological effects of electromagnetic fields. J. Cell. Biochem. 51, 410-416.
2. Alonso, A., Abreu, P., and Fajardo, N. (1993) Regulation of mammalian pineal melatonin production by the electromagnetic spectrum. In: Yu, H.S., and Reiter R.J. (Eds.), Melatonin: Biosynthesis, physiological effects, and clinical applications. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press.
3. Anderson, L.E. (1993) Biological effects of extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields: In vivo studies. Am. Indus. Hygiene Assoc. J. 54, 186-196.
4. Armstrong, B., Thériault, G., Guénel, P., Deadman, J., Goldberg, M., and Héroux, P. (1994) Association between exposure to pulsed electromagnetic fields and cancer in electric utility workers in Quebec, Canada, and France. Am. J. Epidemiol. 140, 805-820.
5. Baris, D., Armstrong, B.G., Deadman, J., and Thériault, G. (1996) A mortality study of electrical utility workers in Québec. Occup. Environ. Med. 53, 25-31.
6. Bates, M.N. (1991) Extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields and cancer: The epidemiologic evidence. Environ. Health Perspect. 95, 147-156.
7. Bawin, S.M., and Adey, W.R. (1976) Sensitivity of calcium binding in cerebral tissue to weak environmental electric fields oscillating at low frequency. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 73, 1999-2003.
8. Blackman, C.F. (1990) ELF effects on calcium homeostasis. In: Wilson, B.W., Stevens, R.G., and Anderson, L.E. (Eds.) Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer. Columbus, OH: Battelle Press.
9. Blackman, C.F., Benane, S.G., Rabinowitz, J.R., House, D.E., and Jones, W.T. (1985) A role for the magnetic field in the radiation-induced efflux of calcium ions from brain tissue in vitro. Bioelectromagnetics 6, 327-337.
10. Blackman, C.F., Benane, S.G., Elliott, D.J., House, D.E., and Pollock, M.M. (1988) Influence of electromagnetic fields on the efflux of calcium ions from brain tissue in vitro: A three-model analysis consistent with the frequency response up to 510 Hz. Bioelectromagnetics 9, 215-227.
11. Brzezinski, A. (1997) Mechanism of disease: Melatonin in humans. N. Engl. J. Med. 336, 186-195.
12. Burch, J.B., Reif, J.S., Yost, M.G., Keefe, T.J., and Pitrat, C.A. (1998) Nocturnal excretion of a urinary melatonin metabolite among electric utility workers. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 24, 183-189.
13. Cridland, N.A., Cragg, T.A., Haylock, R.G.E., and Saunders, R.D. (1996) Effects of 50 Hz magnetic field exposure on the rate of DNA synthesis by normal human fibroblasts. Int. J. Radiat. Biol. 69, 503-511.
14. Davis, F.G., and Preston-Martin, S. (1998) Epidemiology: Incidence and survival. In: Bigner, D.D., McLendon, R.E., and Bruner, J.M. (Eds.), Russell and Rubinstein's Pathology of Tumors of the Nervous System, Vol. 1. London: Arnold. pp. 5-45.
15. Davis, F.G., McCarthy, B., and Jukich, P. (1999) The descriptive epidemiology of brain tumors. Neuroimaging Clin. N. Am., in press.
16. Dockerty, J.D., Elwood, J.M., Skegg, D.C., and Herbison, G.P. (1998) Electromagnetic field exposures and childhood cancers in New Zealand. Cancer Causes Control 9, 299-309.
17. EPRI (Electrical Power Research Institute) (1993) Survey of residential magnetic field sources. Vol. 1: Goals, results, and conclusions. Report No. EPRI TR-102759-V1, Electrical Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA.
18. Feychting, M., and Ahlbom, A. (1993) Magnetic fields and cancer in children residing near Swedish high-voltage power lines. Am. J. Epidemiol. 138, 467-481.
19. Feychting, M., and Ahlbom, A. (1994) Magnetic fields, leukemia, and central nervous system tumors in Swedish adults residing near high-voltage power lines. Epidemiology 5, 501-509.
20. Feychting, M., Forssén, U., and Floderus, B. (1997) Occupational and residential magnetic field exposure and leukemia and central nervous system tumors. Epidemiology 8, 384-389.
21. Floderus, B., Persson, T., Stenlund, C., Wennberg, A., Ost, Å., and Knave, B. (1993) Occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields in relation to leukemia and brain tumors: A case-control study in Sweden. Cancer Causes Control 4, 465-476.
22. Floderus, B., Tornqvist, S., and Stenlund, C. (1994) Incidence of selected cancers in Swedish railway workers, 1961-79. Cancer Causes Control 5, 189-194.
23. Friedman, D.R., Hatch, E.E., Tarone, R., Kaune, W.T., Kleinerman, R.A., Wacholder, S., Boice, J.D., Jr., and Linet, M.S. (1996) Childhood exposure to magnetic fields: Residential area measurements compared to personal dosimetry. Epidemiology 7, 151-155.
24. Goodman, R., and Henderson, A.S. (1990) Exposure of cells to extremely low frequency magnetic fields: Relationship to malignancy? Cancer Cells 2, 355-359.
25. Goodman, R., Basset, C.A.L., and Henderson, A.S. (1983) Pulsing electromagnetic fields induce cellular transcription. Science 220, 1283-1285.
26. Goodman, R., Wei, L.X., Xu, J.C., and Henderson, A.S. (1989) Exposure of human cells to low-frequency electromagnetic fields results in quantitative changes in transcripts. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1009, 216-220.
27. Graham, C., Cook, M.R., Riffle, D.W., Gerkovich, M.M., and Cohen, H.D. (1996) Nocturnal melatonin levels in human volunteers exposed to intermittent 60 Hz magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 17, 263-273.
28. Graham, C., Cook, M.R., and Riffle, D.W. (1997) Human melatonin during continuous magnetic field exposure. Bioelectromagnetics 18, 166-171.
29. Guénel, P., Nicolau, J., Imbernon, E., Warret, G., and Goldberg, M. (1993) Design of a job exposure matrix on electric and magnetic fields: Selection of an efficient job classification for workers in thermoelectric power production plants. Int. J. Epidemiol. 22 (Suppl. 2), S16-S21.
30. Guénel, P., Nicolau, J., Imbernon, E., Chevalier, A., and Goldberg, M. (1996) Exposure to 50-Hz electric field and incidence of leukemia, brain tumors, and other cancers among French electric utility workers. Am. J. Epidemiol. 144, 1107-1121.
31. Gurney, J.G., Mueller, B.A., Davis, S., Schwartz, S.M., Stevens, R.G., and Kopecky, K.J. (1996) Childhood brain tumor occurrence in relation to residential power line configurations, electric heating sources, and electric appliance use. Am. J. Epidemiol. 143, 120-128.
32. Harrington, J.M., McBride, D.I., Sorahan, T., Paddle, G.M., and van Tongeren, M. (1997) Occupational exposure to magnetic fields in relation to mortality from brain cancer among electricity generation and transmission workers. Occup. Environ. Med. 54, 7-13.
33. Hendee, W.R., and Boteler, J.C. (1994) The question of health effects from exposure to electromagnetic fields. Health Physics 66, 127-136.
34. Hester, G.L. (1992) Electric and magnetic fields: Managing an uncertain risk. Environment 34, 7-31.
35. Johansen, C., and Olsen, J.H. (1998) Risk of cancer among Danish utility workers - a nationwide cohort study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 147, 548-555.
36. Karabakhtsian, R., Broude, N., Shalts, N., Kochlatyi, S., Goodman, R., and Henderson, A.S. (1994) Calcium is necessary in the cell response to EM fields. FEBS Lett. 349, 1-6.
37. Kaune, W.T. (1993) Assessing human exposure to power-frequency electric and magnetic fields. Environ. Health Perspect 101 (Suppl. 4), 121-133.
38. Kaune, W.T., Stevens, R.G., Callahan, N.J., Severson, R.K., and Thomas, D.B. (1987) Residential magnetic and electric fields. Bioelectromagnetics 8, 315-335.
39. Kaune, W.T., Darby, S.D., Gardner, S.N., Hrubec, Z., Iriye, R.N., and Linet, M.S. (1994) Development of a protocol for assessing time-weighted-average exposures of young children to power-frequency magnetic fields. Bioelectromagnetics 15, 33-51.
40. Kavet, R. (1996) EMF and current cancer concepts. Bioelectromagnetics 17, 339-357.
41. Kavet, R., Silva, J.M., and Thornton, D. (1992) Magnetic field exposure assessment for adult residents of Maine who live near and far away from overhead transmission lines. Bioelectromagnetics 13, 35-55.
42. Kelsh, M.A., and Sahl, J.D. (1997) Mortality among a cohort of electric utility workers, 1960-1991. Am. J. Ind. Med. 31, 534-544.
43. Kheifets, L.I., Afifi, A.A., Buffler, P.A., and Zhang, Z.W. (1995) Occupational electric and magnetic field exposure and brain cancer: A meta-analysis. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 37, 1327-1341.
44. Kromhout, H., Loomis, D.P., Mihlan G.J., Peipins, L.A., Kleckner, R.C., Iriye, R., and Savitz, D.A. (1995) Assessment and grouping of occupational magnetic field exposure in five electric utility companies. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 21, 43-50.
45. Kromhout, H., Loomis, D.P., Kleckner, R.C., and Savitz, D.A. (1997) Sensitivity of the relationship between cumulative magnetic field exposure and brain cancer mortality to choice of monitoring data grouping scheme. Epidemiol. 8, 442-445.
46. Kuijten, R.R., and Bunin, G.R. (1993) Risk factors for childhood brain tumors. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2, 277-288.
47. Lacy-Hulbert, A., Metcalfe, J.C., and Hesketh, R. (1998) Biological responses to electromagnetic fields. FASEB J. 12, 395-420.
48. Landis, S.H., Murray, T., Bolden, S., and Wingo, P.A. (1999) Cancer statistics, 1999. CA Cancer J. Clin. 49, 8-31.
49. Li, C.Y., Thériault, G., and Lin, R.S. (1997) Residential exposure to 60-Hertz magnetic fields and adult cancers in Taiwan. Epidemiolology 8, 25-30.
50. Lin, R.S., Dischinger, P.C., Conde, J., and Farrell, K.P. (1985) Occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields and the occurrence of brain tumors: An analysis of possible associations. J. Occup. Med. 27, 413-419.
51. Lindh, T., and Andersson, L.-I. (1994) Exposure of workers in the electric power industry to electric and magnetic fields. Rev. Environ. Health 10, 117-125.
52. Linet, M.S., Hatch, E.E., Kleinerman, R.A., Robison, L.L., Kaune, W.T., Friedman, D.R., Severson, R.K., Haines, C.M., Hartsock, C.T., Niwa, S., Wacholder, S., and Tarone, R.E. (1997) Residential exposure to magnetic fields and acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children. N. Engl. J. Med. 337, 1-7.
53. Loomis, D.P., Kromhout, H., Peipins, L.A., Kleckner, R.C., Iriye, R., and Savitz, D.A. (1994) Sampling design and field methods of a large, randomized, multisite survey of occupational magnetic field exposure. App. Occup. Environ. Med. 9, 49-52.
54. Loomis, D.P., Kromhout, H., Kleckner, R.C., and Savitz, D.A. (1998) Effects of the analytical treatment of exposure data on associations of cancer and occupational magnetic field exposure. Am. J. Indus. Med. 34, 49-56.
55. McCann, J. (1998) Cancer risk assessment of extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields: A critical review of methodology. Environ. Health Perspect. 106, 701-717.
56. McCann, J., Dietrich, F., Rafferty, C., and Martin, A.O. (1993) A critical review of the genotoxic potential of electric and magnetic fields. Mutat. Res. 297, 61-95.
57. McCann, J., Kavet, R., and Rafferty, C.N. (1997) Testing electromagnetic fields for potential carcinogenic activity: A critical review of animal models. Environ. Health Perspect. 105, 81-103.
58. McCann, J., Dietrich, F., and Rafferty, C. (1998) The genotoxic potential of electric and magnetic fields: An update. Mutat. Res. 411, 45-86.
59. McLean, J.R., Stuchly, M.A., Mitchel, R.E.J., Wilkinson, D., Yang, H., Goddard, M., Lecuyer, D.W., Schunk, M., Callary, E., and Morrison, D. (1991) Cancer promotion in the mouse-skin model by a 60-Hz magnetic field: II. Tumor development and immune response. Bioelectromagnetics 12, 273-287.
60. McLean, J.R., Thansandote, A., Lecuyer, D., and Goddard, M. (1997) The effect of 60-Hz magnetic fields on co-promotion of chemically induced skin tumors on SENCAR mice: A discussion of three studies. Environ. Health Perspect. 105, 94-96.
61. Milham, S., Jr. (1982) Mortality from leukemia in workers exposed to electrical and magnetic fields. N. Engl. J. Med. 307, 249.
62. Miller, A.B., To, T., Agnew, D.A., Wall, C., and Green, L.M. (1996) Leukemia following occupational exposure to 60-Hz electric and magnetic fields among Ontario electric utility workers. Am. J. Epidemiol. 144, 150-160.
63. Miller, R.D., Neuberger, J.S., and Gerald, K.B. (1997) Brain cancer and leukemia and exposure to power-frequency (50-to 60-Hz) electric and magnetic fields. Epidemiol. Rev. 19, 273-293.
64. Moulder, J.E., and Foster, K.R. (1995) Biological effects of power-frequency fields as they relate to carcinogenesis. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 209, 309-324.
65. NIEHS (National Institute of Environmental Health Services) (1997) EMF Science Review Symposium - Breakout Group Reports for Theoretical Mechanisms and In Vitro Research Findings. March 24-27. Available through the EMF RAPID Program, www.niehs.nih.gov/emfrapid/home.htm.
66. NIEHS (National Institute of Environmental Health Services) (1998) EMF Science Review Symposium - Breakout Group Reports for Clinical and In Vivo Laboratory Findings. April 6-9. Available through the EMF RAPID Program, www.niehs.nih.gov/emfrapid/home.htm.
67. Olsen, J.H., Nielsen, A., and Schulgen, G. (1993) Residence near high voltage facilities and risk of cancer in children. Br. Med. J. 307, 891-895.
68. Patterson, R.M. (1992) Exposure assessment for electric and magnetic fields. J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 2, 159-176.
69. Petitti, D. (1991) Associations are not effects. Am. J. Epidemiol. 133, 101-102.
70. Pfluger, D.H., and Minder, C.E. (1996) Effects of exposure to 16.7 Hz magnetic fields on urinary 6-hydroxymelatonin sulfate excretion of Swiss railway workers. J. Pineal Res. 21, 91-100.
71. Poole, C., and Trichopoulos, D. (1991) Extremely low-frequency electric and magnetic fields and cancer. Cancer Causes Control. 2, 267-276.
72. Portier, C.J., and Wolfe, M.S. (eds.) (1998) Assessment of health effects from exposure to power-line frequency electric and magnetic fields - working group report. NIH Publication No. 98-3981. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences.
73. Preston-Martin, S., Gurney, J.G., Pogoda, J.M., Holly, E.A., and Mueller, B.A. (1996a) Brain tumor risk in children in relation to use of electric blankets and water bed heaters: Results from the United States West Coast Childhood Brain Tumor Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 143, 1116-1122.
74. Preston-Martin, S., Navidi, W., Thomas, D., Lee, P.J., Bowman, J., and Pogoda, J. (1996b) Los Angeles study of residential magnetic fields and childhood brain tumors. Am. J. Epidemiol. 143, 105-119.
75. Reiter, R.J. (1994) Melatonin suppression by static and extremely low frequency electromagnetic fields: Relationship to the reported increased incidence of cancer. Rev. Environ. Health 10, 171-186.
76. Rothman, K.J, and Greenland, S. (1998) Modern Epidemiology. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, PA.
77. Sahl, J.D., Kelsh, M.A., and Greenland, S. (1993) Cohort and nested case-control studies of hematopoietic cancers and brain cancer among electric utility workers. Epidemiol. 4, 104-114.
78. Sahl, J.D., Kelsh, M.A., Smith, R.W., and Aseltine, D.A. (1994) Exposure to 60 Hz magnetic fields in the electric utility work environment. Bioelectromagnetics 15, 21-32.
79. Savitz, D.A. (1993) Overview of epidemiological research on electric and magnetic fields and cancer. Am. Indus. Hygiene Assoc. J. 54, 197-204.
80. Savitz, D.A., and Loomis, D.P. (1995) Magnetic field exposure in relation to leukemia and brain cancer mortality among electric utility workers. Am. J. Epidemiol. 141, 123-134.
81. Savitz, D.A., Wachtel, H., Barnes, F.A., John, E.M., and Tvrdik, J.G. (1988) Case-control study of childhood cancer and exposure to 60-Hz magnetic fields. Am. J. Epidemiol. 128, 21-38.
82. Savitz, D., Pearce, N., and Poole, C. (1989) Methodological issues in the epidemiology of electromagnetic fields and cancer. Epidemiol. Rev. 11, 59-78.
83. Scaiano, J.C., Mohtat, N., Cozens, F.L., McLean, J., and Thansandote, A. (1994) Application of the radical pair mechanism to free radicals in organized systems: Can the effects of 60-Hz magnetic fields be predicted from studies under static fields? Bioelectromagnetics 15, 549-554.
84. Schreiber, G.H., Swaen, G.M., Meijers, J.M.M., Slangen, J.J.M., and Sturmans, F. (1993) Cancer mortality and residence near electricity transmission equipment: A retrospective cohort study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 22, 9-15.
85. Selmaoui, B., Lambrozo, J., and Touitou, Y. (1996) Magnetic fields and pineal function in humans: Evaluation of nocturnal acute exposure to extremely low frequency magnetic fields on serum melatonin and urinary 6-sulfatoxymelatonin circadian rhythms. Life Sci. 58, 1539-1549.
86. Semple, S., and Cherrie, J.W. (1998) Factors influencing personal magnetic field exposure: Preliminary results for power utility and office workers. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 42, 167-171.
87. Stevens, R.G. (1993) Biologically based epidemiological studies of electric power and cancer. Environ. Health Perspect 101 (Suppl. 4), 93-100.
88. Stevens, R.G. (1996) Epidemiological studies of electromagnetic fields and health. In: Polk, C., and Postow, E. (Eds.), Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, Inc.
89. Stevens, R.G., and Davis, S. (1996) The melatonin hypothesis: Electric power and breast cancer. Environ. Health Perspect. 104 (Suppl. 1), 135-140.
90. Stevens, R.G., Wilson, B.W., and Anderson, L.E. (1990) The question of cancer. In: Wilson, B. W., Stevens, R.G., and Anderson, L.E. (Eds.), Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer. Columbus, OH: Battelle Press.
91. Stuchly, M.A., McLean, J.R., Burnett, R. , Goddard, M., Lecuyer, D.W., and Mitchel, R.E. (1992) Modification of tumor promotion in the mouse skin by exposure to an alternating magnetic field. Cancer Lett. 65, 1-7.
92. Tarone, R.E., Kaune, W.T., Linet, M.S., Hatch, E.E., Kleinerman, R.A., Robison, L.L., Boice, J.D., Jr., and Wacholder, S. (1998) Residential wire codes: Reproducibility and relation with measured magnetic fields. Occup. Environ. Med. 55, 333-339.
93. Thériault, G., Goldberg, M., Miller, A.B., Armstrong, B., Guénel, P., Deadman, J., Imbernon, E., To, T., Chevalier, A., Cyr, D., and Wall, C. (1994) Cancer risks associated with occupational exposure to magnetic fields among electric utility workers in Ontario and Quebec, Canada, and France: 1970-1989. Am. J. Epidemiol. 139, 550-572.
94. Trump, B.F., and Berezesky, I.K. (1995) Calcium-mediated cell injury and cell death. FASEB J. 9, 219-228.
95. Tynes, T., and Haldorsen, T. (1997) Electromagnetic fields and cancer in children residing near Norwegian high-voltage power lines. Am. J. Epidemiol. 145, 219-226.
96. Tynes, T., Reitan, J.B., and Andersen, A. (1994) Incidence of cancer among workers in Norwegian hydroelectric power companies. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 20, 339-344.
97. Valberg, P.A. (1995) Designing EMF experiments: What is required to characterize "exposure"? Bioelectromagnetics 16, 396-401.
98. Valberg, P.A. (1996) Electric and magnetic fields (EMF): What do we know about the health effects? Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 68, 448-454.
99. Valberg, P.A., Kavet, R., and Rafferty, C.N. (1997) Can low-level 50/60 Hz electric and magnetic fields cause biological effects? Radiat. Res. 148, 2-21.
100. Verkasalo, P.K., Pukkala, E., Hongisto, M.Y., Valjus, J.E., Jarvinen, P.J, Heikkila, K.V., and Koskenvuo, M. (1993) Risk of cancer in Finnish children living close to power lines. Br. Med. J. 307, 895-899.
101. Verkasalo, P.K., Pukkala, E., Kaprio, J., Heikkila, K.V., and Koskenvuo, M. (1996) Magnetic fields of high voltage power lines and risk of cancer in Finnish adults: Nationwide cohort study. Br. Med. J. 313, 1047-1051.
102. Vistnes, A.I., Ramberg, G.B., Bjornevik, L.R., Tynes, T., and Haldorsen, T. (1997) Exposure of children to residential magnetic fields in Norway: Is proximity to power lines an adequate predictor of exposure? Bioelectromagnetics 18, 47-57.
103. Webb, S.M., and Puig-Domingo, M. (1995) Role of melatonin in health and disease. Clin. Endocrinol. 42, 221-234.
104. Wertheimer, N. (1991) What can wire codes tell us? A historical perspective. Electrical Power Research Institute Science & Community Seminar on Electomagnetic Fields, San Jose, CA. Palo Alto, Calif.: Electrical Power Research Institute.
105. Wertheimer, N., and Leeper, E. (1979) Electrical wiring configurations and childhood cancer. Am. J. Epidemiol. 109, 273-284.
106. Wertheimer, N., and Leeper, E. (1982) Adult cancer related to electrical wires near the home. Int. J. Epidemiol. 11, 345-355.
107. Wertheimer, N., and Leeper, E. (1987) Magnetic field exposure related to cancer subtypes. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 502, 43-54.
108. Wilson, B.W., Stevens, R.G., and Anderson, L.E. (Eds.) (1990a) Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: The Question of Cancer. Columbus, OH: Battelle Press.
109. Wilson, B.W., Wright, C.W., Morris, J.E., Buschbom, R.L., Brown, D.P., Miller, D.L., Somers-Flannigan, R.S., and Anderson, L.E. (1990b) Evidence for an effect of ELF electromagnetic fields on human pineal gland function. J. Pineal. Res. 9, 259-269.
110. Wood, A.W. (1993) Possible health effects of 50/60 Hz electric and magnetic fields: Review of proposed mechanisms. Australas. Phys. Eng. Sci. Med. 16, 1-21.
111. Wrensch, M., Yost, M., Miike, R., Lee G., and Touchstone, J. (1999) Adult glioma in relation to residential power frequency electromagnetic field exposure in the San Francisco area. Epidemiology, in press.
112. Zaffanella, L.E., Kavet, R., Pappa, J.R., and Sullivan, T.P. (1997) Modeling magnetic fields in residences: Validation of the resicalc program. J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 7, 241-259.