Retinoids: Present role and future potential

British Journal of Cancer

Volumn 80, Issue 1-2, 1999, Pages 1-8

  Evans, T R J ^a   Kaye, S B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Apoptosis; Differentiation; Drug resistance; Retinoids

Indexed keywords

RETINAL; RETINOIC ACID; RETINOL;

EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT; GENE EXPRESSION; MORPHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; APOPTOSIS; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL DIVISION; CHEMOPREVENTION; HUMANS; NEOPLASMS; RECEPTORS, RETINOIC ACID; RETINOIDS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 0032955702     PISSN: 00070920     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6690312     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Allenby G, Bocquel M-T, Saunders M, Kazmer S, Speck, J, Rosenberger M, Lovey A, Kastner P, Grippo JF, Chambon P and Levin AA (1993) Retinoic acid receptors and retinoid X receptors: interactions with endogenous retinoic acids. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 30-34
2. Anzano MA, Byers SW, Smith JM, Peer CW, Mullen LT, Brown CC, Roberts AB and Sporn MB (1994) Prevention of breast cancer in the rat with 9-cis retinoic acid as a single agent and in combination with tamoxifen. Cancer Res 54: 4614-4617
3. Arnold A, Ayoub J, Douglas L, Hoogendoorn P, Skingley L, Gelmon K, Hirsh V and Eisenhauer E (1994) Phase II trial of 13-cis retinoic acid and interferon α in non-small cell lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 86: 306-309
4. Atencia R, Garcia-Sanz M, Unda F and Arechaga J (1994) Apoptosis during retinoic acid-induced differentiation of F9 embryonal carcinoma cells. Exp Cell Res 214: 663-667
5. Bavinck JN, Tieben LM, van der Woude FJ, Tegzess AM, Hermans J, Schegget J and Vermeer B-J (1995) Prevention of skin cancer and reduction of keratotic skin lesions during acitretin therapy in renal transplant recipients: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Oncol 13, 1933-1938
6. Benner SE, Pajak TF, Lippman SM, Earley C and Hong WK (1994) Prevention of second primary tumours with isotretinoin in patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck: long-term follow-up. J Natl Cancer Inst 86: 140-141
7. Bertram JS (1983) Inhibition of neoplastic transformation in vitro by retinoids. Cancer Surv 2: 243-262
8. Bolla M, Lefur R, Ton Van J, Domenge C, Badet JM, Koskas Y and Laplanche A (1994) Prevention of second primary tumours with etretinate in squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity and oropharynx. Results of a multicentre double-blind randomised study. Eur J Cancer 30A: 767-772
9. Bollag W, Majewski S and Jablonska S (1994) Cancer combination chemotherapy with retinoids: experimental rationale. Leukemia 8: S11-S15
10. Caliaro MJ, Vitaux P, Lafon C, Lochon I, Nehme A, Valette A, Canal P, Bugat R and Jozan S (1997) Multifactional mechanism of the potentiation of cisplatin (CDDP) cytotoxicity by all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) in human ovarian carcinoma cell lines. Br J Cancer 75: 333-340
11. Castaigne S, Chomienne C, Daniel MT, Ballerini P, Berger R, Fenaux P and Degos L (1990) All-trans retinoic acid as differentiation therapy for acute promyelocytic leukaemia. Clinical Results. Blood 76: 1704-1709
12. Chambon P (1995) The molecular and genetic dissection of the retinoid signalling pathway. Rec Prog Horm Res 50: 317-332
13. Chen JD and Evans RM (1995) A transcriptional co-repressor that interacts with nuclear hormone receptors. Nature 377: 454-457
14. Chen JY, Clifford J, Zusi C, Starrett J, Tortolani D, Ostrowski J, Reczek PR, Chambon P and Gronemeyer H (1996) Two distinct actions of retinoid-receptor ligands. Nature 382: 819-822
15. Chen Z, Zue Y, Zhang R, Tao R, Xia X, Li C, Wang W, Zu W, Yao X and Ling B (1991) A clinical and experimental study on all trans retinoic acid treated acute promyelocytic leukaemia patients. Blood 78: 1413-1419
16. Chiesa F, Tradati N, Marazza M, Rossi N, Boracchi P, Mariani L, Formelli E, Giardini R, Costa A, De Palo G and Veronesi U (1993) Fenretinide (4HPR) in chemoprevention of oral leukoplakia. J Cell Biochem 17F: 255-261
17. Colston KW, Mackay AG, James SY, Binderup L, Chander SK and Coombes RC (1992) EB1089: a new vitamin D analog that inhibits the growth of breast cancer cells in vivo and in vitro. Biochem Pharmcol 44: 2273-2280
18. Costa A, Formelli F, Chiesa F, Decensi A, DePalo G and Veronesi U (1994) Prospects of chemoprevention of human cancers with the synthetic retinoid fenretinide. Cancer Res 54: 2032s-2037s
19. Costa A, De Palo G, Decensi A, Formelli F, Chiesa F, Nava M, Camerini T, Marubini E and Veronesi U (1995). Retinoids in cancer chemoprevention. Ann NY Acad Sci 768: 148-162
20. Creek KE, Jenkins GR, Khan MA, Batova A, Hodam JR, Tolleson WH and Pirisi L (1994) Retinoic acid suppresses human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16)-mediated transformation of human keratinocytes and inhibits the expression of the HPV16 oncogenes. Adv Exp Med Biol 354: 19-35
21. Ha oncogene and high risk for premalignant progression. Cancer Res 56: 4942-4949
22. De Bruijn DR, Oerlemans F, Hendricks W, Baats E, Ploemacker R, Wieringa B and Geurts van Kessel A (1994) Normal development, growth and reproduction in cellular retinoic acid binding proteins-1 (CRABPI) null mutant mice. Differentiation 58: 141-148
23. De Luca LM, Darwiche N, Celli G, Kosa K, Jones C, Ross S and Chen LC (1994) Vitamin A in epithelial differentiation and skin carcinogenesis. Nutr Rev 52: 45-52
24. Dey A, Minucci S and Ozato K (1994) Ligand-dependent occupancy of the retinoic acid receptor beta 2 promoter in vivo. Mol Cell Biol 14: 8191-8201
25. Dhingra K, Papadopoulous N, Lippman S, Lotan R and Legha SS (1993) Phase II study of alpha-interferon and 13-cis retinoic acid in metastatic melanoma. Invest New Drugs 11: 39-43
26. Durand B, Saunders M, Leroy P, Leid M and Chambon P (1992) All-trans and 9-cis retinoic acid induction of CRABPII transcription is mediated by RAR-RXR heterodimers bound to DR1 and DR1 repeated motifs. Cell 71: 73-85
27. Edwards L and Jaffe P (1990) The effects of topical tretinoin on dysplastic nevi. Arch Dermatol 126: 494-499
28. Eisenhauer EA, Lippman SM, Kavanagh JJ, Parades-Espinoza M, Arnold A, Hong WK, Massimini G, Schleuniger U, Bollag W, Holdener EE and Krakoff I (1994) Combination 13-cis retinoic acid and interferon α-2a in the therapy of solid tumours. Leukaemia 8: S38-S41
29. Elstner E, Linker-Israeli M, Umiel T, Le J, Grillier I, Said J, Shintaku IP, Krajewski S, Reed JC, Binderup L and Koeffler HP (1996) Combination of a potent 20-epi-vitamin D3 analogue (KH1060) with 9-cis retinoic acid irreversibly inhibits clonal growth, decreases bel-2 expression, and induces apoptosis in HL-60 leukaemic cells. Cancer Res 56: 3570-3576
30. Evans RM (1988) The steroid and thyroid hormone receptor superfamily. Science 240: 889-895
31. Evans RM and Hollenberg SM (1988) Zinc fingers: gilt by association. Cell 52: 1-3
32. Fan S, El-Deiry WS, Bae I, Freeman J, Jondle D, Bhatia K, Fornace AJ Jr, Magrath I, Kohn KW and O'Connor PM (1994) p53 gene mutations are associated with decreased sensitivity of human lymphoma cells to DNA damaging agents. Cancer Res 54: 5824-5830
33. Fanjul AN, Bouterfa H, Dawson M and Pfahl M (1996) Potential role for retinoic acid receptor-γ in the inhibition of breast cancer cells by selective retinoids and interferons. Cancer Res 56: 1571-1577
34. Fenaux P, Castaigne S, Dombret H, Archimbaud E, Duarte M, Morel P, Lamy T, Tilly H, Guerci A, Maloisel F, Bordessoule D, Sadoun A, Tiberghien P, Fegueux N, Daniel MT, Chomienne C and Degos L (1992) All-trans retinoic acid followed by intensive chemotherapy gives a high complete remission rate and may prolong remissions in newly diagnosed acute promyelocytic leukamia: a pilot study on 26 cases. Blood 80: 2176-2181
35. Fontana JA (1987) Interaction of retinoids and tamoxifen on the inhibition of human mammary carcinoma cell proliferation. Exp Cell Biol 55: 136-144
36. r39,000 protein. Cancer Res 50: 1977-1982
37. Frankel SR, Eardley A, Heller G, Berman E, Miller WH, Dmitrovsky E and Warrell RP (1994) All-trans retinoic acid for acute promyelocytic leukaemia. Ann Intern Med 120: 278-286
38. Freedman LP (1992) Anatomy of the steroid receptor zinc finger region. Endocr Rev 13: 129-145
39. Gianni M, Terao M, Fortino I, LiCalzi M, Viggiano V, Barbui T, Rambaldi A and Garratini E (1997) Stat I is induced and activated by all-trans retinoic acid in acute promyelocytic leukemia cells. Blood 89: 1001-1012
40. Giguere V, Ong ES, Segui P and Evans RM (1987) Identification of a receptor for the morphogen retinoic acid. Nature 330: 624-629
41. Giguere V (1994) Retinoic acid receptors and cellular retinoid binding proteins: complex interplay in retinoid signalling. Endocr Rev 15: 61-79
42. Gorry P, Lufkin T, Dierich A, Rochette-Eghy C, Decimo D, Dolle P, Mark M, Durand B and Chambon P (1994). The cellular retinoic acid binding protein I is dispensable. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 9032-9036
43. Gottardis MM, Bischoff ED, Shirley MA, Wagoner MA, Lamph WW and Heyman RA (1996a) Chemoprevention of mammary carcinoma by LGD1069 (targretin): an RXR-selective ligand. Cancer Res 56: 5566-5570
44. Gottardis MM, Lamph WW, Shalinsky DR, Wellstein A and Heyman RA (1996b) The efficacy of 9-cis retinoic acid in experimental models of cancer. Breast Cancer Res Treat 38: 85-96
45. Gucev ZS, Oh Y, Kelley KM and Rosenfeld RG (1996) Insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 mediates retinoic-acid and transforming growth factor β2-induced growth inhibition in human breast cancer cells. Cancer Res 56: 1545-1550
46. Guchelaar HJ, Timmer-Bosscha H, Dam-Meiring A, Uges DRA, Oosterhuis JW, de Vries EGE and Mulder NH (1993) Enhancement of cisplatin and etoposide cytotoxicity after all-trans retinoic acid induced cellular differentiation of a murine embryonal carcinoma cell line. Int J Cancer 55: 442-447
47. Hallum AV, Alberts DS, Lippman SM, Inclan L, Shamdas GJ, Childers JM, Surwit EA, Modiano M and Hatch KD (1995) Phase II study of 13-cis retinoic acid plus interferon-α2A for heavily pre-treated squamous carcinoma of the cervix. Gynecol Oncol 56: 382-386
48. Halpern AC, Schuchter LM, Elder DE, Guerry D, Elenitsas R, Trock B and Matozzo I (1994) Effects of topical tretinoin on dysplastic nevi. J Clin Oncol 12: 1028-1035
49. Han J (1993) Highlights of the cancer chemoprevention studies in China. Prev Med 22: 712-722
50. Harant H, Korschineck I, Krupitza G, Fazeny B, Dittrich C and Grunt TW (1993) Retinoic acid receptors in retinoid responsive ovarian cancer cell lines detected by polymerase chain reactions following reverse transcription. Br J Cancer 68: 530-536
51. Higashimoto Y, Ohata M, Nishio K, Iwamoto Y, Fujimoto H, Uetuni K, Suruda T, Nakamura Y, Funasako M and Saijo N (1996) 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 and all-trans retinoic acid inhibit the growth of a lung cancer cell line. Anticancer Res 16: 2653-2659
52. Hong WK, Endicott J, Itri LM, Doos W, Batsakis JG, Bell R, Fofonoff S, Byers R, Atkinson EN, Vaughan G, Toth BB, Kramer A, Dimery IW, Skipper P and Strong S (1986) 13-cis retinoic acid in the treatment of oral leukoplakia. N Engl J Med 315: 1501-1515
53. Hong WK, Lippman SM, Itri LM, Karp DD, Lee JS, Byers RM, Schantz SS, Kramer AM, Lotan R, Peter LL, Dimery IW, Brown BW and Goepfert H (1990) Prevention of second primary tumors with isotretinoin in squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. N Engl J Med 323: 795-801
54. Hong WK and Itri LM (1994) Retinoids and human cancer. In: The Retinoids. Sporn MS, Roberts AB and Goodman DS (Eds), pp 597-658. Raven Press: New York
55. Horwitz KB, Jackson TA, Rain DL, Richer JK, Takimoto GS and Tung L (1996) Nuclear hormone receptor co-activators and co-repressors. Mol Endocrinol 10: 1167-1177
56. Huang M, Ye Y, Chen S, Chai J, Lu J, Zhao L, Gu L and Wang Z (1988) Use of all-trans retinoic acid in the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukaemia. Blood 72: 567-572
57. Kalemkerian GP, Slusher R, Ramalingam S, Gadgeel S and Mabry M (1995) Growth inhibition and induction of apoptosis by fenretinide in small cell lung cancer cell lines. J Natl Cancer Inst 87: 1674-1680
58. Kanamaru A, Takemoto Y, Tanimoto M, Murakami H, Asou N, Kobayashi T, Kuriyama K, Ohmoto E, Sakamaki H, Tsubaki K, Hiraoka A, Yamada O, Oh, H, Saito K, Matsuda S, Minato K, Ueda T and Ohno R (1995) All-trans retinoic acid for the treatment of newly diagnosed acute promyelocytic leukaemia. Blood 85: 1202-1206
59. Kliewer SA, Umesono K, Mangelsdorf DJ and Evans RM (1992) Retinoid X receptor interacts with nuclear receptors in retinoic acid, thyroid hormone and vitamin D3 signalling. Nature 355, 446-449
60. Kolla V, Lindner DJ, Weihua X, Borden EC and Kalvakolanu DV (1996) Modulation of interferon-inducible gene expression by retinoic acid. J Biol Chem 271: 10508-10514
61. Kondo S, Barna BP, Kondo Y, Tanaka Y, Casey G, Liu J, Morimura T, Kaakaji R, Peterson JW, Werbel B and Barnett GH (1996) WAFI/CIPI increases the susceptibility of p53 non-functional malignant glioma cells to cisplatin-induced apoptosis. Oncogene 13: 1279-1285
62. Kurokawa R, Soderstrom M, Horlein A, Halachmi S, Brown M, Rosenfeld MG and Glass CK (1995) Polarity-specific activities of retinoic acid receptors determined by a co-repressor. Nature 377: 451-454
63. Laudet V, Hanni C, Coll J, Catzeflis F and Stehelin D (1992) Evolution of the nuclear receptor gene superfamily. EMBO J 11: 1003-1013
64. Le Ruppert KI, Masters JRW, Kneuchel R, Seegers S, Tainsky MA, Hofstaedter F and Buettner R (1992) The effect of retionic acid on chemosensitivity ity of PA-1 human teratocarcinoma cells and its modulation by an activated N-ras oncogene. Int J Cancer 51: 646-651
65. Lee JS, Lippman SM, Benner SE, Lee JJ, Ro JY, Lukeman JM, Morice RC, Peters EJ, Pang AC, Fritsche HA Jr and Hong WK (1994) Randomised placebo-controlled trial of isotretinoin in chemoprevention of bronchial squamous metaplasia. J Clin Oncol 12: 937-945
66. Lee PPH, Lee M-T, Darcy KM, Shudo K and Ip MM (1995) Modulation of normal mammary epithelial cell proliferation, morphogenesis and functional differentiation by retinoids: a comparison of the retinobenzoic acid derviative RE80 with retinoic acid. Endocrinology 136: 1707-1717
67. Liebermann DA, Hoffman B and Steinman RA (1995) Molecular controls of growth arrest and apoptosis - p53-dependent and independent pathways. Oncogene 11: 199-210
68. Lippman SM, Batsakis JG, Toth BB, Weber RS, Lee JJ, Martin JW, Hays GL, Goepfert H and Hong WK (1993) Comparison of low-dose isotretinoin with beta carotene to prevent oral carcinogenesis. N Engl J Med 328: 15-20
69. Lippman SM, Clayman GL, Huber MH, Benner SE and Hong WK (1995) Biology and reversal of aerodigestive tract carcinogenesis. Cancer Treat Res 74: 89-115
70. Liu M, Iavarone A and Freedman LP (1996) Transcriptional activation of the human p21 WAFI/CIFI gene by retinoic acid receptor. J Biol Chem 271: 31723-31728
71. Lotan R (1994) Suppression of squamous cell carcinoma growth and differentiation by retinoids. Cancer Res 54: 1987s-1990s
72. Lotan R (1995) Cellular biology of the retinoids. In Retinoids in Oncology, Degos L and Parkinson DR (eds), pp. 27-42. Springer: Berlin
73. Lotan R (1996) Retinoids in cancer chemoprevention. FASEB J 10: 1031-1039
74. Lowe SW, Ruley HE, Jacks T and Housman DE (1993) p53-dependent apoptosis modulates the cytotoxicity of anticancer agents. Cell 74: 957-967
75. Lowe SW, Bodis S, McClatchey A, Remington L, Ruley HE, Fisher DE, Housman DE and Jacks T (1994). p53 status and the efficacy of cancer therapy in vivo. Science 266: 807-810
76. Mader S, Leroy P, Chen JY and Chambon P (1993) Multiple parameters control the selectivity of nuclear receptors for their response elements. J Biol Chem 268: 591-600
77. Mangelsdorf DJ, Umesono K, Kliewer SA, Borgmeyer U, Ong ES and Evans M (1991) A direct repeat in the cellular retinol binding protein type II gene confers differential regulation by RXR and RAR. Cell 66: 555-561
78. Mangelsdorf DJ, Borgmeyer U, Heyman RA, Zhou JY, Ong ES, Oro AE, Kakizuka A and Evans RM (1992) Characterisation of three RXR genes that mediate the action of 9-cis retinoic acid. Genes Dev 6: 329-344
79. Marth C, Daxenbichler G and Dapunt O (1986) Synergistic antiproliferative effect of human recombinant interferons and retinoic acid in cultured breast cancer cells. J Natl Cancer Inst 77: 1197-1202
80. Martin SJ, Bradley JG and Cotter TG (1990) HL-60 cells induced to differentiate towards neutrophils subsequently die via apoptosis. Clin Exp Immunol 79: 448-453
81. Matikainen S, Ronni T, Hurme M, Pine R and Julkunen I (1996) Retinoic acid activates interferon regulatory factor-1 gene expression in myeloid cells. Blood 88: 114-123
82. Meyskens FL, Surwit E, Moon TE, Childers JM, Davis JR, Dorr RT, Johnson CS and Alberts DS (1994) Enhancement of regression of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia II (moderate dysplasia) with topically applied all trans retinoic acid a randomised trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 86: 539-543
83. Miller GJ, Stapleton GE, Ferrara JA, Lucia MS, Pfister S, Hedlund TE and Upadhya P (1992) The human prostatic carcinoma cell line LNCaP expresses biologically active specific receptors for 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Cancer Res 52: 515-520
84. Miller VA, Benedetti FM, Rigas JR, Verret AL, Pfister DG, Straus D, Kris MG, Crisp M, Heyman R, Loewen GR, Truglia JA and Warrell RP (1997) Initial clinical trial of a selective retinoid X receptor ligand, LGD1069. J Clin Oncol 15: 790-795
85. Moasser MM, DeBlasio A and Dmitrovsky E (1994) Response and resistance to retinoic acid are mediated through the retinoic acid nuclear receptor γ in human teratocarcinomas. Oncogene 9: 833-840
86. Moon RC, Mehta RG and Rao KJVN (1994) Retinoids and cancer in experimental animals. In The Retinoids, Sporn MB, Roberts AB and Goodman DS (eds), pp. 573-595. Raven Press: New York
87. Moon TE, Levine N, Cartmel B and Bangert J (1997) Retinoids in prevention of skin cancer. Cancer Lett 114: 203-205
88. Nagpal S, Saunders M, Kastner P, Durand B, Nakshatri H and Chambon P (1992) Promoter context-and response element-dependent specificity of the transcriptional activation and modulating functions of retinoic acid receptors. Cell 70: 1007-1019
89. Nagy L, Thomazy VA, Shipley GL, Fesus L, Lamph W, Heyman RA, Chandraratna RAS and Davies PJA (1995). Activation of retinoid X receptors induces apoptosis in HL-60 cell lines. Mol Cell Biol 15: 3540-3551
90. Ohno R, Yoshida H, Fukutani H, Naoe T, Ohshima T, Kyo T, Endoh N, Fujimoto T, Kobayashi T, Hiraoka A, Mizoguchi H, Kodera Y, Suzuki H, Hirano M, Akiyama H, Aoki N, Shindo H and Yokomaku S (1993) Multi-institutional study of all trans retinoic acid as a differentiation therapy of refractory acute promyelocytic leukaemia. Leukaemia 7: 1722-1727
91. Oridate N, Lotan D, Xu X-C, Hong WK and Lotan R (1996) Differential induction of apoptosis by all-trans retinoic acid and N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) retinamide in human head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cell lines. Clin Cancer Res 2: 855-863
92. Pastorino U, Infante M, Maioli M, Chiesa G, Buyse M, Pirket P, Rosementz N, Clerici M, Soresi E, Valente M, Belloni PA and Ravasi G (1993) Adjuvant treatment of stage I lung cancer with high-dose vitamin A. J Clin Oncol 11: 1216-1222
93. Perlmann T and Evans RM (1997) Nuclear receptors in Sicily: all in the famiglia. Cell 90: 391-397
94. Petkovich M, Brand NJ, Krust A and Chambon P (1987) A human retinoic acid receptor which belongs to the family of nuclear receptors. Nature 330: 444-450
95. Piacentini M, Annicchiarico-Petruzzelli M, Oliverio S, Piredda L, Biedler JL and Melino G (1992) Phenotype-specific tissue transglutaminase regulation in human neuroblastoma cells in response to retinoic acid: correlation with cell death by apoptosis. Int J Cancer 52: 271-278
96. Pratt MAC, Deonarine D, Teixeira C, Novosad D, Tate BF and Grippo JF (1996) The AF-2 region of the retinoic-acid receptor α mediates retinoic acid inhibition of estrogen receptor function in breast cancer cells. J Biol Chem 271: 20346-20352
97. Prout GR Jr and Barton BA (1992) 13-cis retinoic acid in chemoprevention of superficial bladder cancer. J Cell Biochem S16I: 148-152
98. Reichel R, Koeffler HP and Norman AW (1989) The role of the vitamin D endocrine system in health and disease. N Engl J Med 320: 980-991
99. Rinaldi DA, Lippman SM, Burris HA, Thou C, von Hoff DD and Hong WK (1993) Phase II study of 13-cis retinoic acid and interferon α 2a in patients with advanced squamous cell lung cancer. Anti-cancer Drugs 4: 33-36
100. Rishi AK, Gerald TM, Shao ZM, Li X-S, Baumann RG, Dawson MI and Fontana JA (1996) Regulation of the human retinoic acid receptor α gene in the estrogen receptor negative human breast carcinoma cell lines SK BR-3 and MDA-MB-435. Cancer Res 56: 5246-5252
101. Roberts AB and Sporn MB (1992) Mechanistic interrelationships between two superfamilies: the steroid/retinoid receptors and transforming growth factor β. Cancer Surv 14: 205-220
102. Roman SD, Ormandy CJ, Manning DL, Blamey RW, Nicholson RI, Sutherland RL and Clarke CL (1993) Estradiol induction of retinoic acid receptors in human breast cancer cells. Cancer Res 53: 5940-5945
103. Rook AH, Jaworsky C, Nguyen T, Grossman RA, Wolfe JT, Witmer WK and Kligman AM (1995) Beneficial effect of low-dose systemic retinoid in combination with topical tretinoin for the treatment and prophylaxis of premalignant and malignant skin lesions in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 59: 714-719
104. Rubin M, Fenig E, Rosenauer A, Menendez-Botet C, Achkar C, Bentel JM, Yahalom J, Mendelsohn J and Miller WH Jr (1994) 9-cis retinoic acid inhibits growth of breast cancer cells and down-regulation estrogen receptor RNA and protein. Cancer Res 54: 6549-6556
105. Sacks PG, Harris D and Chou TC (1995) Modulation of growth and proliferation in squamous cell carcinoma by retinoic acid: a rationale for combination therapy with chemotherapeutic agents. Int J Cancer 61: 409-415
106. Schadendorf D, Worm M, Jurgovsky K, Dippel E, Michel S, Charpentier B, Bernardon J-M, Reichert U and Czarnetzki BM (1994) Retinoic acid receptor γ selective retinoids exert antiproliferative effects on human melanoma cell growth in vitro. Int J Oncol 5: 1325-1331
107. Schadendorf D, Kern MA, Artuc M, Pahl HL, Rosenbach T, Fichtner I, Nurnberg W, Stuting S, Stebut E, Worm M, Makki A, Jurgovsky K, Kolde G and Henz BM (1996) Treatment of melanoma cells with the synthetic retinoid CD437 induces apoptosis via activation of AP-1 in vitro and causes growth inhibition in xenografts in vivo. J Cell Biol 135: 1889-1898
108. Scita G, Darwiche N, Greenwald E, Rosenberg M, Politi K and DeLuca LM (1996) Retinoic acid downregulation of fibronectin and retinoic acid receptor α proteins in NIH-3T3 cells: block of this response by ras transformation. J Biol Chem 271: 6502-6508
109. Selvakumaran M, Lin H-K, Sjin RTT, Reed JC, Liebermann DA and Hoffman B (1994) The novel primary response gene MyD118 and the proto-oncogenes myb, myc and bel-2 modulate transforming growth factor β1-induced apoptosis of mycloid leukaemia cells. Mol Cell Biol 14: 2352-2360
110. Shabahang M, Buras RR, Davoodi F, Shumaker LM, Nauta RJ, Uskokovic MR, Brenner RV and Evans SRT (1994) Growth inhibition of HT-29 human colon cancer cells by analogs of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Cancer Res 54: 4057-4064
111. Shalinksy DR, Bischoff ED, Gregory ML, Lamph WW, Heyman RA, Hayes JS, Thomazy V and Davies PJA (1996) Enhanced antitumour efficacy of cisplatin in combination with ALRT 1057 (9-cis retinoic acid) in human oral squamous carcinoma xenografts in nude mice. Clin Cancer Res 2: 511-520
112. Shalinsky DR, Bischoff HD, Lamph WW, Zhang L, Boehm MF, Davies PJA, Nadzan AM and Heyman RA (1997) A novel retinoic acid receptor-selective retinoid ALRT1550, has potent antitumour activity against human oral squamous carcinoma xenografts in nude mice. Cancer Res 57: 162-168
113. Shao Z-M, Dawson MI, Li XS, Rishi AK, Sheikh MS, Han Q-X, Ordonez JV, Shroot B and Fontana JA (1995) p53-independent G0/G1 arrest and apoptosis induced by a novel retinoid in human breast cancer cells. Oncogene 11: 493-504
114. Sheikh MS, Shao ZM, Li X-S, Dawson M, Jetten AM, Wu S, Conley BA, Garcia M, Rochefort H and Fontana JA (1994) Retinoid-resistant estrogen receptor-negative human breast carcinoma cells transfected with retinoic acid receptor α acquire sensitivity to growth inhibition by retinoids. J Biol Chem 269: 21440-21447
115. Sheikh MS, Shao Z-M, Li X-S, Ordonez JV, Conley BA, Wu S, Dawson MI, Han Q-X, Chao W, Quick T, Niles RN and Fontana JA (1995) N-(4-hydroxyphenyl) retinamide (4HPR)-mediated biological actions involve retinoid receptor-independent pathways in human breast carcinoma. Carcinogen 16: 2477-2486
116. Smith WC, Nakshatri H, Leroy P, Rees J and Chambon P (1991) A retinoic acid response element is present in the mouse cellular retinol binding protein I (mCRBPI) promoter. EMBO J 10: 2223-2230
117. Studer UE, Jenzer S, Biedermann C, Chollet D, Kraft R, Vontoggenburg H and Vonbank F (1995) Adjuvant treatment with vitamin A analogue (etretinate) after transurethral resection of superficial bladder tumours - final analysis of a prospective randomised multicentre trial in Switzerland. Eur Urol 28: 284-290
118. Supino R, Crosti M, Clerici M, Warlters A, Cleris L, Zunino F and Formelli F (1996) Induction of apoptosis by fenretinide (4HPR) in human ovarian carcinoma cells and its association with retinoic acid receptor expression. Int J Cancer 65: 491-497
119. Symonds H, Krall L, Remington L, Saenz-Robels M, Lowe S, Jacks T and Van Dyke T (1994) p53-dependent apoptosis suppresses tumour growth and progression in vivo. Cell 78: 703-711
120. Tallman MS, Andersen JW, Schiffer CA, Appelbaum FR, Feusner JH, Ogden A, Shepherd L, Willman C, Bloomfield CD, Rowe JM and Wiernik PH (1997) All-trans retinoic acid in acute promyelocytic leukemia. N Engl J Med 337: 1021-1028
121. Thiruvengadam R, Atiba JO and Azawi SH (1996) A phase II trial of differentiating agents (tRA) with cisplatin-VP-16 chemotherapy in advanced non-small cell lung cancer. Invest New Drugs 14: 395-401
122. Tsang N-M, Nagasawa H, Li C and Little JB (1995) Abrogation of p53 function by transfection of HPV16 E6 gene enhances the resistance of human diploid fibroblasts to ionizing radiation. Oncogene 10: 2403-2408
123. Van der Burg B, Van der Leede BM, Kwakkenbos-Isbrucker L, Salverda S, de Laat SW and Van der Saag PT (1993) Retinoic acid resistance of estradiol-independent breast cancer cells coincides with diminished retinoic acid receptor function. Mol Cell Endocrinol 91: 149-157
124. Voravud N, Lippman SM, Weber RS, Rodriguez GI, Yee D, Dimery IW, Earley CL, von Hoff DD and Hong WK (1993) Phase II trial of 13-cis retinoic acid plus interferon-α in recurrent head and neck cancer. Invest New Drugs 11: 57-60
125. Warrell RP, Frankel SR, Miller WH, Sheinberg DA, Itri LM, Hittelman WN, Vyas R, Andreeff M, Tafuri A, Jakubowski A, Gabrilove J, Gordon MS and Dmitrovsky E (1991) Differentiation therapy of acute promyelocytic leukaemia with tretinoin (all-trans retinoic acid). N Engl J Med 324: 1385-1393
126. Widschwendter M, Daxenbichler G, Dapunt O and Marth C (1995) Effects of retinoic acid and γ-interferon on expression of retinoic acid receptor and cellular retinoic acid-binding protein in breast cancer cells. Cancer Res 55: 2135-2139
127. Wilcken NRC, Musgrove EA and Sutherland RL (1997) Different points of action of retinoids and anti-estrogen in G1 phase identified in synchronised T-47D breast cancer cells. Int J Cancer 70: 291-296
128. Wu GS and El-Deiry WS (1996) Apoptotic death of tumour cells correlates wilh chemosensitivity independent of p53 or bel-2. Clin Cancer Res 2: 623-633
129. Yang N, Schule R, Mangelsdorf DJ and Evans RM (1991) Characterisation of DNA binding and retinoic acid binding properties of retinoic acid receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88: 3559-3563
130. Zhang X-K, Hoffmann B, Tran PB-V, Graupner G and Pfahl M (1992) Retinoid X receptor is an auxillary protein for thyroid hormone and retinoic acid receptors. Nature 355: 441-446
131. Zugmaier G, Jager R, Grage B, Gottardis MM, Havemann K and Knabbe C (1996) Growth-inhibitory effects of vitamin D analogues and retinoids on human pancreatic cancer cells. Br J Cancer 73: 1341-1346