A fatal relationship - Influenza virus interactions with the host cell

Viral Immunology

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 175-196

  Ludwig, Stephan ^a   Pleschka, Stephan ^b   Wolff, Thorsten ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WÜRZBURG   (Germany)

^b JUSTUS LIEBIG UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^c PHILIPPS UNIVERSITY MARBURG   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMANTADINE; CYTOKINE; GENE PRODUCT; GRANULOCYTE MACROPHAGE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; HEMAGGLUTININ; MEMBRANE PROTEIN; MESSENGER RNA; PHOSPHOPEPTIDE; PROTEIN KINASE; PROTEIN KINASE INHIBITOR; RNA POLYMERASE; SIALIC ACID DERIVATIVE; SIALIDASE INHIBITOR; VIRUS PROTEIN; VIRUS RNA;

APOPTOSIS; CELL NUCLEUS MEMBRANE; DEFENSE MECHANISM; GENE EXPRESSION; HOST CELL; INFLUENZA; INFLUENZA VIRUS A; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN PHOSPHORYLATION; REVIEW; RNA SYNTHESIS; VIRUS CELL INTERACTION; VIRUS GENOME; VIRUS PARTICLE; VIRUS REPLICATION;

ANIMALIA; AVES; DNA VIRUSES; HERPES; INFLUENZA A VIRUS; INFLUENZA VIRUS; MAMMALIA; ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE; RNA VIRUSES;

EID: 0032828271     PISSN: 08828245     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/vim.1999.12.175     Document Type: Review

References (188)

1. Albert, M.L., B. Sauter, and N. Bhardwaj. 1998. Dendritic cells acquire antigen from apoptotic cells and induce class I-restricted CTLs. Nature. 392:86-89.
2. Almond, J.W., and V. Felsenreich. 1982. Phosphorylation of the nucleoprotein of an avian influenza virus. J. Gen. Virol. 60:295-305.
3. Arrese, M., and A. Portela. 1996. Serine 3 is critical for phosphorylation at the N-terminal end of the nucleoprotein of influenza virus A/Victoria/3/75. J. Virol. 70:3385-3391.
4. Avalos, R.T., Z. Yu, and D.P. Nayak. 1997. Association of influenza virus NP and M1 proteins with cellular cytoskeletal elements in influenza virus-infected cells. J. Virol. 71:2947-2958.
5. Baeuerle, P.A., and T. Henkel. 1994. Function and activation of NF-kappa B in the immune system. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 12:141-179.
6. Bender, A., U. Amann, R. Jager, M. Nain, and D. Gemsa. 1993. Effect of granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor on human monocytes infected with influenza A virus. Enhancement of virus replication, cytokine release, and cytotoxicity. J. Immunol. 151:5416-5427.
7. Bender, A., H. Sprenger, J.H. Gong, A. Henke, G. Bolte, H.P. Spengler, M. Nain, and D. Gemsa. 1993. The potentiating effect of LPS on tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by influenza A virus-infected macrophages. Immunobiology. 187:357-371.
8. Berger, M., and M.F. Schmidt. 1985. Protein fatty acyltransferase is located in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. FEBS. Lett. 187:289-294.
9. Biron, C.A. 1998. Role of early cytokines, including alpha and beta interferons (IFN-alpha/beta), in innate and adaptive immune responses to viral infections. Semin. Immunol. 10:383-390.
10. Blaas, D., E. Patzelt, and E. Kuechler. 1982. Identification of the cap binding protein of influenza virus. Nucleic. Acids. Res. 10:4803-4812.
11. Boycott, R., H.D. Klenk, and M. Ohuchi. 1994. Cell tropism of influenza virus mediated by hemagglutinin activation at the stage of virus entry. Virology. 203:313-319.
12. Braakman, I., H. Hoover-Litty, K.R. Wagner, and A. Helenius. 1991. Folding of influenza hemagglutinin in the endoplasmic reticulum. J. Cell. Biol. 114:401-411.
13. Bui, M., G. Whittaker, and A. Helenius. 1996. Effect of M1 protein and low pH on nuclear transport of influenza virus ribonucleoproteins. J. Virol. 70:8391-8401.
14. Ceriotti, A., and A. Colman. 1990. Trimer formation determines the rate of influenza virus haemagglutinin transport in the early stages of secretion in Xenopus oocytes. J. Cell. Biol. 111:409-420.
15. Chen, W., J. Helenius, I. Braakman, and A. Helenius. 1995. Cotranslational folding and calnexin binding during glycoprotein synthesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:6229-6233.
16. Cianci, C., L. Tiley, and M. Krystal. 1995. Differential activation of the influenza virus polymerase via template RNA binding. J. Virol 69:3995-3999.
17. Copeland, C.S., R.W. Doms, E.M. Bolzau, R.G. Webster, and A. Helenius. 1986. Assembly of influenza hemagglutinin trimers and its role in intracellular transport. J. Cell. Biol. 103:1179-1191.
18. de la Luna, S., P. Fortes, A. Beloso, and J. Ortin. 1995. Influenza virus NS1 protein enhances the rate of translation initiation of viral mRNAs. J. Virol. 69:2427-2433.
19. Der, S.D., Y.L. Yang, C. Weissmann, and B.R. Williams. 1997. A double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase-dependent pathway mediating stress-induced apoptosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:3279-3283.
20. Digard, P., D. Elton, K. Bishop, E. Medcalf, A. Weeds, and B. Pope. 1999. Modulation of nuclear localization of the influenza virus nucleoprotein through interaction with actin filaments. J. Virol. 73:2222-2231.
21. Drummer, H.E., D.C. Jackson, and L.E. Brown. 1993. Modulation of CD4+ T-cell recognition of influenza hemagglutinin by carbohydrate side chains located outside a T-cell determinant. Virology. 192:282-289.
22. Enami, K., Y. Qiao, R. Fukuda, and M. Enami. 1993. An influenza virus temperature-sensitive mutant defective in the nuclear-cytoplasmic transport of the negative-sense viral RNAs. Virology. 194:822-827.
23. Enami, K., T.A. Sato, S. Nakada, and M. Enami. 1994. Influenza virus NS1 protein stimulates translation of the M1 protein. J. Virol. 68:1432-1437.
24. Fesq, H., M. Bacher, M. Nain, and D. Gemsa. 1994. Programmed cell death (apoptosis) in human monocytes infected by influenza A virus. Immunobiology. 190:175-182.
25. Fischer, C., B. Schroth-Diez, A. Herrmann, W. Garten, and H.D. Klenk. 1998. Acylation of the influenza hemagglutinin modulates fusion activity. Virology. 248:284-294.
26. Flick, R., G. Neumann, E. Hoffmann, E. Neumeier, and G. Hobom. 1996. Promoter elements in the influenza vRNA terminal structure. RNA. 2:1046-1057.
27. Fodor, E., D.C. Pritlove, and G.G. Brownlee. 1995. Characterization of the RNA-fork model of virion RNA in the initiation of transcription in influenza A virus. J. Virol. 69:4012-4019.
28. Fortes, P., A. Beloso, and J. Ortin. 1994. Influenza virus NS1 protein inhibits pre-mRNA splicing and blocks mRNA nucleocytoplasmic transport. EMBO. J. 13:704-712.
29. Gale, M., Jr., C.M. Blakely, D.A. Hopkins, M.W. Melville, M. Wambach, P.R. Romano, and M.G. Katze. 1998. Regulation of interferon-induced protein kinase PKR: Modulation of p58ipk inhibitory function by a novel protein. p52ripk. Mol. Cell. Biol. 18:859-871.
30. Gallagher, P., J. Henneberry, I. Wilson, J. Sambrook, and M.J. Gething. 1988. Addition of carbohydrate side chains at novel sites on influenza virus hemagglutinin can modulate the folding, transport, and activity of the molecule. J. Cell. Biol. 107:2059-2073.
31. Gambaryan, A.S., V.P. Marinina, A.B. Tuzikov, N.V. Bovin, I.A. Rudneva, B.V. Sinitsyn, A.A. Shilov, and M.N. Matrosovich. 1998. Effects of host-dependent glycosylation of hemagglutinin on receptor-binding properties on H1N1 human influenza A virus grown in MDCK cells and in embryonated eggs. Virology. 247:170-177.
32. Garcia-Sastre, A., R.K. Durbin, H. Zheng, P. Palese, R. Gertner, D.E. Levy, and J.E. Durbin. 1998. The role of interferon in influenza virus tissue tropism. J. Virol. 72:8550-8558.
33. Garcia-Sastre, A., A. Egorov, D. Matassov, S. Brandt, D.E. Levy, J.E. Durbin, P. Palese, and T. Muster. 1998. Influenza A virus lacking the NS1 gene replicates in interferon-deficient systems. Virology. 252:324-330.
34. Garfinkel, M.S., and M.G. Katze. 1993. Translational control by influenza virus. Selective translation is mediated by sequences within the viral mRNA 5′-untranslated region. J. Biol. Chem. 268:22223-22226.
35. Gething, M.J., K. McCammon, and J. Sambrook. 1986. Expression of wild-type and mutant forms of influenza hemagglutinin: the role of folding in intracellular transport. Cell. 46:939-950.
36. Goebl, M., and M. Yanagida. 1991. The TPR snap helix: A novel protein repeat motif from mitosis to transcription. Trends. Biochem. Sci. 16:173-177.
37. Gong, J.H., H. Sprenger, F. Hinder, A. Bender, A. Schmidt, S. Horch, M. Nain, and D. Gemsa. 1991. Influenza A virus infection of macrophages. Enhanced tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) gene expression and lipopolysaccharide-triggered TNF-alpha release. J. Immunol. 147:3507-3513.
38. Goto, H., and Y. Kawaoka. 1998. A novel mechanism for the acquisition of virulence by a human influenza A virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:10224-10228.
39. Gotoh, B., T. Ogasawara, T. Toyoda, N.M. Inocencio, M. Hamaguchi, and Y. Nagai. 1990. An endoprotease homologous to the blood clotting factor X as a determinant of viral tropism in chick embryo. EMBO. J. 9:4189-4195.
40. Gottlieb, T.A., A. Gonzalez, L. Rizzolo, M.J. Rindler, M. Adesnik, and D.D. Sabatini. 1986. Sorting and endocytosis of viral glycoproteins in transfected polarized epithelial cells. J. Cell. Biol. 102:1242-1255.
41. Gregoriades, A., T. Christie, and K. Markarian. 1984. The membrane (M1) protein of influenza virus occurs in two forms and is a phosphoprotein. J. Virol. 49:229-235.
42. Gregoriades, A., G.G. Guzman, and E. Paoletti. 1990. The phosphorylation of the integral membrane (M1) protein of influenza virus. Virus. Res. 16:27-41.
43. Hagen, M., T.D. Chung, J.A. Butcher, and M. Krystal. 1994. Recombinant influenza virus polymerase: requirement of both 5′ and 3′ viral ends for endonuclease activity. J. Virol. 68:1509-1515.
44. Haller, O., M. Frese, and G. Kochs. 1998. Mx proteins: Mediators of innate resistance to RNA viruses. Rev. Sci. Tech. 17:220-230.
45. Hankins, R.W., K. Hagata, D.J. Bucher, S. Popple, and A. Ishihama. 1989. Monoclonal antibody analysis of influenza virus matrix protein epitopes involved in transcription inhibition. Virus Genes 3:111-126.
46. Hatada, E., and R. Fukuda. 1992. Binding of influenza A virus NS1 protein to dsRNA in vitro. J. Gen. Virol. 73:3325-3327.
47. Hatada, E., S. Saito, and R. Fukuda. 1999. Mutant influenza viruses with a defective NS1 protein cannot block the activation of PKR in infected cells. J. Virol. 73:2425-2433.
48. Hausmann, J., E. Kretzschmar, W. Garten, and H.D. Klenk. 1997. Biosynthesis, intracellular transport and enzymatic activity of an avian influenza A virus neuraminidase: Role of unpaired cysteines and individual oligosaccharides. J. Gen. Virol. 78:3233-3265.
49. Hausmann, J., E. Kretzschmar, W. Garten, and H.D. Klenk. 1995. N1 neuraminidase of influenza virus A/FPV/Rostock/34 has haemadsorbing activity. J. Gen. Virol. 76:1719-1728.
50. Hebert, D.N., B. Foellmer, and A. Helenius. 1995. Glucose trimming and reglucosylation determine glycoprotein association with calnexin in the endoplasmic reticulum. Cell 81:425-433.
51. Hebert, D.N., J.X. Zhang, W. Chen, B. Foellmer, and A. Helenius. 1997. The number and location of glycans on influenza hemagglutinin determine folding and association with calnexin and calreticulin. J. Cell. Biol. 139:613-623.
52. Hinshaw, V.S., C.W. Olsen, N. Dybdahl-Sissoko, and D. Evans. 1994. Apoptosis: A mechanism of cell killing by influenza A and B viruses. J. Virol. 68:3667-3673.
53. Hogue, B.G., and D.P. Nayak. 1992. Synthesis and processing of the influenza virus neuraminidase, a type II transmembrane glycoprotein. Virology. 188:510-517.
54. Holsinger, L.J., M.A. Shaughnessy, A. Micko, L.H. Pinto, and R.A. Lamb. 1995. Analysis of the posttranslational modifications of the influenza virus M2 protein. J. Virol. 69:1219-1225.
55. Horimoto, T., K. Nakayama, S.P. Smeekens, and Y. Kawaoka. 1994. Proprotein-processing endoproteases PC6 and furin both activate hemagglutinin of virulent avian influenza viruses. J. Virol. 68:6074-6078.
56. Horisberger, M.A. 1992. Interferon-induced human protein MxA is a GTPase which binds transiently to cellular proteins. J. Virol. 66:4705-4709.
57. Huang, T., J. Pavlovic, P. Staeheli, and M. Krystal. 1992. Overexpression of the influenza virus polymerase can titrate out inhibition by the murine MxI protein. J. Virol. 66:4154-4160.
58. Huang, T.S., P. Palese, and M. Krystal. 1990. Determination of influenza virus proteins required for genome replication. J. Virol. 64:5669-5673.
59. Hurtley, S.M., D.G. Bole, H. Hoover-Litty, A. Helenius, and C.S. Copeland. 1989. Interactions of misfolded influenza virus hemagglutinin with binding protein (BiP). J. Cell. Biol. 108:2117-2126.
60. Imhof, B.A., and D. Dunon. 1995. Leukocyte migration and adhesion. Adv. Immunol. 58:345-416.
61. Jin, H., G.P. Leser, and R.A. Lamb. 1994. The influenza virus hemagglutinin cytoplasmic tail is not essential for virus assembly for infectivity. EMBO. J. 13:5504-5515.
62. Jin, H., G.P. Leser, J. Zhang, and R.A. Lamb. 1997. Influenza virus hemagglutinin and neuraminidase cytoplasmic tails control particle shape. EMBO. J. 16:1236-1247.
63. Jin, H., K. Subbarao, S. Bagai, G.P. Leser, B.R. Murphy, and R.A. Lamb. 1996. Palmitylation of the influenza virus hemagglutinin (H3) is not essential for virus assembly or infectivity. J. Virol. 70:1406-1414.
64. Kamata, T., and Y. Watanabe. 1977. Role for nucleocapsid protein phosphorylation in the transcription of influenza virus genome. Nature. 267:460-462.
65. Katze, M.G., and R.M. Krug. 1984. Metabolism and expression of RNA polymerase II transcripts in influenza virus-infected cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 4:2198-3206.
66. Kawaoka, Y., C.W. Naeve, and R.G. Webster. 1984. Is virulence of H5N2 influenza viruses in chickens associated with loss of carbohydrate from the hemagglutinin? Virology. 139:303-316.
67. Keller, W., and L. Minvielle-Sebastian 1997. A comparison of mammalian and yeast pre-mRNA 3′-end processing. Curr. Opin. Cell. Biol. 9:329-336.
68. Kido, H., K. Sakai, Y. Kishino, and M. Tashiro. 1993. Pulmonary surfactant is a potential endogenous inhibitor of proteolytic activation of Sendai virus and influenza A virus. FEBS. Lett. 322:115-119.
69. Kido, H., Y. Yokogoshi, K. Sakai, M. Tashiro, Y. Kishino, A. Fukutomi, and N. Katunuma. 1992. Isolation and characterization of a novel trypsin-like protease found in rat bronchiolar epithelial Clara cells. A possible activator of the viral fusion glycoprotein. J. Biol. Chem. 267:13573-13579.
70. Kistner, O., H. Muller, H. Becht, and C. Scholtissek. 1985. Phosphopeptide fingerprints of nucleoproteins of various influenza A virus strains grown in different host cells. J. Gen. Virol. 66:465-472.
71. Kistner, O., K. Muller, and C. Scholtissek. 1989. Differential phosphorylation of the nucleoprotein of influenza A viruses. J. Gen. Virol. 70:2421-2431.
72. Klenk, H.D., and W. Garten. 1994. Host cell proteases controlling virus pathogenicity. Trends. Microbiol. 2:39-43.
73. Klenk, H.D., R. Rott, M. Orlich, and J. Blodorn. 1975. Activation of influenza A viruses by trypsin treatment. Virology. 68:426-137.
74. Knobil, K., A.M. Choi, G.W. Weigand, and D.B. Jacoby. 1998. Role of oxidants in influenza virus-induced gene expression. Am. J. Physiol. 274:L134-L142.
75. Kobasa, D., M.E. Rodgers, K. Wells, and Y. Kawaoka. 1997. Neuraminidase hemadsorption activity, conserved in avian influenza A viruses, does not influence viral replication in ducks. J. Virol. 71:6706-6713.
76. Kochs, G., and O. Haller. 1999. GTP-bound human MxA protein interacts with the nucleocapsids of thogoto virus (Orthomyxoviridae). J. Biol. Chem. 274:4370-4376.
77. Kochs, G., and O. Haller. 1999. Interferon-induced human MxA GTPase blocks nuclear import of Thogoto virus nucleocapsids. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:2082-2086.
78. Krug, R.M. (ed.). 1989. The influenza viruses. Plenum Press, New York, London.
79. Krug, R.M., B.A. Broni, and M. Bouloy. 1979. Are the 5′ ends of influenza viral mRNAs synthesized in vivo donated by host mRNAs? Cell. 18:329-334.
80. Krug, R.M., M. Shaw, B. Broni, G. Shapiro, and O. Haller. 1985. Inhibition of influenza viral mRNA synthesis in cells expressing the interferon-induced Mx gene product. J. Virol. 56:201-206.
81. Lamb, J.R., S. Tugendreich, and P. Hieter. 1995. Tetratrico peptide repeat interactions: to TPR or not to TPR? Trends. Biochem. Sci. 20:257-259.
82. Lamb, R.A., P.W. Choppin, R.M. Chanock, and C.J. Lai. 1980. Mapping of the two overlapping genes for polypeptides NS1 and NS2 on RNA segment 8 of influenza virus genome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77:1857-1861.
83. Lamb, R.A., and R.M. Krug. 1996. Orthomyxoviridae: The viruses and their replication, p. 1353-1395. In B.N.e.a. Fields (ed.), Fields Virology, Third edition ed. Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia.
84. Lamb, R.A., C.J. Lai, and P.W. Choppin. 1981. Sequences of mRNAs derived from genome RNA segment 7 of influenza virus: colinear and interrupted mRNAs code for overlapping proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 78:4170-4174.
85. Lambrecht, B., and M.F. Schmidt. 1986. Membrane fusion induced by influenza virus hemagglutinin requires protein bound fatty acids. FEBS. Lett. 202:127-132.
86. Lazarowitz, S.G., and P.W. Choppin. 1975. Enhancement of the infectivity of influenza A and B viruses by proteolytic cleavage of the hemagglutinin polypeptide. Virology. 68:440-454.
87. Lazarowitz, S.G., A.R. Goldberg, and P.W. Choppin. 1973. Proteolytic cleavage by plasmin of the HA polypeptide of influenza virus: host cell activation of serum plasminogen. Virology 56:172-180.
88. Lee, S.B., and M. Esteban. 1994. The interferon-induced double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase induces apoptosis. Virology. 199:491-496.
89. Lee, T.G., N. Tang, S. Thompson, J. Miller, and M.G. Katze. 1994. The 58,000-dalton cellular inhibitor of the interferon-induced double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR) is a member of the tetratricopeptide repeat family of proteins. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14:2331-2342.
90. Lee, T.G., J. Tomita, A.G. Hovanessian, and M.G. Katze. 1992. Characterization and regulation of the 58,000-dalton cellular inhibitor of the interferon-induced, dsRNA-activated protein kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 267: 14238-14243.
91. Legrain, P., and M. Rosbash. 1989. Some cis- and trans-acting mutants for splicing target pre-mRNA to the cytoplasm. Cell. 57:573-583.
92. Li, M.L., B.C. Ramirez, and R.M. Krug. 1998. RNA-dependent activation of primer RNA production by influenza virus polymerase: different regions of the same protein subunit constitute the two required RNA-binding sites. EMBO. J. 17:5844-5852.
93. Li, S., J. Schulman, S. Itamura, and P. Palese. 1993. Glycosylation of neuraminidase determines the neurovirulence of influenza A/WSN/33 virus. J. Virol. 67:6667-6673.
94. Lu, Y., X.Y. Qian, and R.M. Krug. 1994. The influenza virus NS1 protein: a novel inhibitor of pre-mRNA splicing. Genes. Dev. 8:1817-1828.
95. Lu, Y., M. Wambach, M.G. Katze, and R.M. Krug. 1995. Binding of the influenza virus NS1 protein to double-stranded RNA inhibits the activation of the protein kinase that phosphorylates the e1F-2 translation initiation factor. Virology. 214:222-228.
96. Luo, G., and P. Palese. 1992. Genetic analysis of influenza virus. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2:77-81.
97. Martin, K., and A. Helenius. 1991. Nuclear transport of influenza virus ribonucleoproteins: the viral matrix protein (M1) promotes export and inhibits import. Cell. 67:117-130.
98. Melikyan, G.B. H. Jin, R.A. Lamb, and F.S. Cohen. 1997. The role of the cytoplasmic tail region of influenza virus hemagglutinin in formation and growth of fusion pores. Virology. 235:118-128.
99. Melville, M.W., W.J. Hansen, B.C. Freeman, W.J. Welch, and M.G. Katze. 1997. The molecular chaperone hsp40 regulates the activity of P58IPK, the cellular inhibitor of PKR. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:97-102.
100. Merrick, W.C. 1992. Mechanism and regulation of eukaryotic protein synthesis. Microbiol. Rev. 56:291-315.
101. Mir-Shekari, S.Y., D.A. Ashford, D.J. Harvey, R.A. Dwek, and I.T. Schulze. 1997. The glycosylation of the influenza A virus hemagglutinin by mammalian cells. A site-specific study. J. Biol. Chem. 272:4027-4036.
102. Momose, F., H. Handa, and K. Nagata. 1996. Identification of host factors that regulate the influenza virus RNA polymerase activity. Biochimie. 78:1103-1108.
103. Munk, K., E. Pritzer, E. Kretzschmar, B. Gutte, W. Garten, and H.D. Klenk. 1992. Carbohydrate masking of an antigenic epitope of influenza virus haemagglutinin independent of oligosaccharide size. Glycobiology. 2:233-240.
104. Naeve, C.W., and D. Williams. 1990. Fatty acids on the A/Japan/305/57 influenza virus hemagglutinin have a role in membrane fusion. EMBO. J. 9:3857-3866.
105. Nain, M., F. Hinder, J.H. Gong, A. Schmidt, A. Bender, H. Sprenger, and D. Gemsa. 1990. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha production of influenza A virus-infected macrophages and potentiating effect of lipopolysaccharides. J. Immunol. 145:1921-1928.
106. Nakayama, M., K. Nagata, A. Kato, and A. Ishihama. 1991. Interferon-inducible mouse Mx1 protein that confers resistance to influenza virus is GTPase. J. Biol. Chem. 266:21404-21408.
107. Nemeroff, M.E., S.M. Barabino, Y. Li, W. Keller, and R.M. Krug. 1998. Influenza virus NS1 protein interacts with the cellular 30 kDa subunit of CPSF and inhibits 3′end formation of cellular pre-mRNAs. Mol. Cell. 1:991-1000.
108. Neumann, G., M.R. Castrucci, and Y. Kawaoka. 1997. Nuclear import and export of influenza virus nucleoprotein. J Virol 71:9690-700.
109. O'Neill, R.E., R. Jaskunas, G. Blobel, P. Palese, and J. Moroianu. 1995. Nuclear import of influenza virus RNA can be mediated by viral nucleoprotein and transport factors required for protein import. J Biol Chem. 270:22701-22704.
110. O'Neill, R.E., J. Talon, and P. Palese. 1998. The influenza virus NEP (NS2 protein) mediates the nuclear export of viral ribonucleoproteins. EMBO. J. 17:288-296.
111. Ohuchi, M., R. Ohuchi, A. Feldmann, and H.D. Klenk. 1997. Regulation of receptor binding affinity of influenza virus hemagglutinin by its carbohydrate moiety. J. Virol. 71:8377-8384.
112. Ohuchi, R., M. Ohuchi, W. Garten, and H.D. Klenk. 1997. Oligosaccharides in the stem region maintain the influenza virus hemagglutinin in the metastable form required for fusion activity. J. Virol. 71:3719-3725.
113. Olsen, C.W., N. Dybdahl-Sissolo, and V.S. Hinshaw. 1996. The influence of calcium and reactive oxygen species on influenza-virus induced apoptosis. Cell. Death. Differ. 3:191-197.
114. Olsen, C.W., J.C. Kehren, N.R. Dybdahl-Sissoko, and V.S. Hinshaw. 1996. Bcl-2 alters influenza virus yield, spread, and hemagglutinin glycosylation. J. Virol. 70:663-666.
115. Ortin, J. 1998. Multiple levels of posttranscriptional regulation of influenza virus gene expression. Semin. Virol. 8:335-342.
116. Pahl, H.L., and P.A. Baeuerle. 1997. The ER-overload response: activation of NF-kappa B. Trends. Biochem. Sci. 22:63-67.
117. Pahl, H.L., and P.A. Baeuerle. 1995. Expression of influenza virus hemagglutinin activates transcription factor NF-kappa B. J. Virol. 69:1480-1484.
118. Pavlovic, J., H.A. Arzet, H.P. Hefti, M. Frese, D. Rost, B. Ernst, E. Kolb, P. Staeheli, and O. Haller. 1995. Enhanced virus resistance of transgenic mice expressing the human MxA protein. J. Virol. 69:4506-4510.
119. Pavlovic, J., O. Haller, and P. Staeheli. 1992. Human and mouse Mx proteins inhibit different steps of the influenza virus multiplication cycle. J. Virol. 66:2564-2569.
120. Pavlovic, J., T. Zurcher, O. Haller, and P. Staeheli. 1990. Resistance to influenza virus and vesicular stomatitis virus conferred by expression of human MxA protein. J. Virol. 64:3370-3375.
121. Perez, D.R., and R.O. Donis. 1998. The matrix 1 protein of influenza A virus inhibits the transcriptase activity of a model influenza reporter genome in vivo. Virology. 249:52-61.
122. Peterson, J.R., A. Ora, P.N. Van, and A. Helenius. 1995. Transient, lectin-like association of calreticulin with folding intermediates of cellular and viral glycoproteins. Mol. Biol. Cell. 6:1173-1184.
123. Petri, T., and N.J. Dimmock. 1981. Phosphorylation of influenza virus nucleoprotein in vivo. J. Gen. Virol. 57:185-190.
124. Philipp, H.C., B. Schroth, M. Veit, M. Krumbiegel, A. Herrmann, and M.F. Schmidt. 1995. Assessment of fusogenic properties of influenza virus hemagglutinin deacylated by site-directed mutagenesis and hydroxylamine treatment. Virology. 210:20-28.
125. Pitossi, F., A. Blank, A. Schroder, A. Schwarz, P. Hussi, M. Schwemmle, J. Pavlovic, and P. Staeheli. 1993. A functional GTP-binding motif is necessary for antiviral activity of Mx proteins. J. Virol. 67:6726-6732.
126. Polyak, S.J., N. Tang, M. Wambach, G.N. Barber, and M.G. Katze. 1996. The P58 cellular inhibitor complexes with the interferon-induced, double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinse, PKR, to regulate its autophosphorylation and activity. J. Biol. Chem. 271:1702-1707.
127. Privalsky, M.L., and E.E. Penhoet. 1978. Influenza virus proteins: identity, synthesis, and modification analyzed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 75:3625-3629.
128. Privalsky, M.L., and E.E. Penhoet. 1977. Phosphorylated protein component present in influenza virions. J. Virol. 24:401-405.
129. Privalsky, M.L., and E.E. Penhoet. 1981. The structure and synthesis of influenza virus phosphoproteins. J. Biol. Chem. 256:5368-5376.
130. Qiu, Y., and R.M. Krug. 1994. The influenza virus NS1 protein is a poly(A)-binding protein that inhibits nuclear export of mRNAs containing poly(A). J. Virol. 68:2425-2432.
131. Qiu, Y., M. Nemeroff, and R.M. Krug. 1995. The influenza virus NS1 protein binds to a specific region in human U6 snRNA and inhibits U6-U2 and U6-U4 snRNA interactions during splicing. RNA. 1:304-316.
132. Reed, J.C. 1998. Bcl-2 family proteins. Oncogene. 17:3225-3236.
133. Rey, O., and D.P. Nayak. 1992. Nuclear retention of Ml protein in a temperature-sensitive mutant of influenza (A/WSN/33) virus does not affect nuclear export of viral ribonucleoproteins. J. Virol. 66:5815-5824.
134. Richardson, J.C., and R.K. Akkina. 1991. NS2 protein of influenza virus is found in purified virus and phosphorylated in infected cells. Arch. Virol. 116:69-80.
135. Rindler, M.J., I.E. Ivanov, H. Plesken, E. Rodriguez-Boulan, and D.D. Sabatini. 1984. Viral glycoproteins destined for apical or basolateral plasma membrane domains traverse the same Golgi apparatus during their intracellular transport in doubly infected Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. J. Cell. Biol. 98:1304-1319.
136. Ritchey, M.B., and P. Palese. 1977. Identification of the defective genes in three mutant groups of influenza virus. J. Virol. 21:1196-1204.
137. Roberts, N.J., Jr., A.M. Prill, and T.N. Mann. 1986. Interleukin 1 and interleukin 1 inhibitor production by human macrophages exposed to influenza virus or respiratory syncytial virus. Respiratory syncytial virus is a potent inducer of inhibitor activity. J. Exp. Med. 163:511-519.
138. Rodriguez-Boulan, E., K.T. Paskiet, and D.D. Sabatini. 1983. Assembly of enveloped viruses in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells: polarized budding from single attached cells and from clusters of cells in suspension. J. Cell. Biol. 96:866-874.
139. Rodriguez-Boulan, E., K.T. Paskiet, P.J. Salas, and E. Bard. 1984. Intracellular transport of influenza virus hemagglutinin to the apical surface of Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. J Cell Biol. 98:308-19.
140. Ronni, T., S. Matikainen, T. Sareneva, K. Melen, J. Pirhonen, P. Keskinen, and I. Julkunen. 1997. Regulation of IFN-alpha/beta, MxA, 2′,5′-oligoadenylate synthetase, and HLA gene expression in influenza A-infected human lung epithelial cells. J. Immunol. 158:2363-2374.
141. Rott, R., H.D. Klenk, Y. Nagai, and M. Tashiro. 1995. Influenza viruses, cell enzymes, and pathogenicity. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care. Med. 152:816-519.
142. Rott, R., and C. Scholtissek. 1970. Specific inhibition of influenza replication by alpha-amanitin. Nature. 228:56.
143. Saito, T., and K. Kawano. 1997. Loss of glycosylation at Asn144 alters the substrate preference of the N8 influenza A virus neuraminidase. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 59:923-926.
144. Saito, T., G. Taylor, and R.G. Webster. 1995. Steps in maturation of influenza A virus neuraminidase. J. Virol. 69:5011-5017.
145. Sakai, K., T. Kohri, M. Tashiro, Y. Kishino, and H. Kido. 1994. Sendai virus infection changes the subcellular localization of tryptase Clara in rat bronchiolar epithelial cells. Eur. Respir. J. 7:686-692.
146. Samuel, C.E. 1991. Antiviral actions of interferon. Interferon-regulated cellular proteins and their surprisingly selective antiviral activities. Virology. 183:1-11.
147. Sanz-Ezquerro, J.J., J. Fernandez Santaren, T. Sierra, T. Aragon, J. Ortega, J. Ortin, G.L. Smith, and A. Nieto. 1998. The PA influenza virus polymerase subunit is a phosphorylated protein. J. Gen. Virol. 79:471-478.
148. Scheiblauer, H., M. Reinacher, M. Tashiro, and R. Rott. 1992. Interactions between bacteria and influenza A virus in the development of influenza pneumonia. J. Infect. Dis. 166:783-791.
149. Schindler, C., and J.E. Darnell, Jr. 1995. Transcriptional responses to polypeptide ligands: the JAK-STAT pathway. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 64:621-651.
150. Schmidt, M.F. 1982. Acylation of viral spike glycoproteins: a feature of enveloped RNA viruses. Virology. 116:327-338.
151. Scholtissek, C., and K. Muller. 1991. Failure to obtain drug-resistant variants of influenza virus after treatment with inhibiting doses of 3-deazaadenosine and H7. Arch. Virol. 119:111-118.
152. Schultz-Cherry, S., and V.S. Hinshaw. 1996. Influenza virus neuraminidase activates latent transforming growth factor beta. J. Virol. 70:8624-8629.
153. Schultz-Cherry, S., R.M. Krug, and V.S. Hinshaw. 1998. Induction of apoptosis by influenza virus. Semin. Virol. 8:491-495.
154. Schulze, I.T. 1997. Effects of glycosylation on the properties and functions of influenza virus hemagglutinin. J. Infect. Dis. 176(Suppl 1):S24-S28.
155. Shapiro, G.I., T. Gurney, Jr., and R.M. Krug. 1987. Influenza virus gene expression: control mechanisms at early and late times of infection and nuclear-cytoplasmic transport of virus-specific RNAs. J. Virol. 61:764-773.
156. Shapiro, G.I., and R.M. Krug. 1988. Influenza virus RNA replication in vitro: Synthesis of viral template RNAs and virion RNAs in the absence of an added primer. J. Virol. 62:2285-2290.
157. Shi, L., J.M. Galarza, and D.F. Summers. 1996. Recombinant-baculovirus-expressed PB2 subunit of the influenza A virus RNA polymerase binds cap groups as an isolated subunit. Virus. Res. 42:1-9.
158. Simpson, D.A., and R.A. Lamb. 1992. Alterations to influenza virus hemagglutinin cytoplasmic tail modulate virus infectivity. J. Virol. 66:790-803.
159. Sprenger, H., R.G. Meyer, A. Kaufmann, D. Bussfeld, E. Rischkowsky, and D. Gemsa. 1996. Selective induction of monocyte and not neutrophil-attracting chemokines after influenza A virus infection. J. Exp. Med. 184:1191-1196.
160. Staeheli, P. 1990. Interferon-induced proteins and the antiviral state. Adv. Virus. Res. 38:147-200.
161. Steinhauer, D.A., S.A. Wharton, D.C. Wiley, and J.J. Skehel. 1991. Deacylation of the hemagglutinin of influenza A/Aichi/2/68 has no effect on membrane fusion properties. Virology. 184:445-448.
162. Stieneke-Grober, A., M. Vey, H. Angliker, E. Shaw, G. Thomas, C. Roberts, H.D. Klenk, and W. Garten. 1992. Influenza virus hemagglutinin with multibasic cleavage site is activated by furin, a subtilism-like endoprotease. EMBO. J. 11:2407-2414.
163. Stranden, A.M., P. Staeheli, and J. Pavlovic. 1993. Function of the mouse Mx1 protein is inhibited by overexpression of the PB2 protein of influenza virus. Virology. 197:642-651.
164. Sugiura, A., M. Ueda, K. Tobita, and C. Enomoto. 1975. Further isolation and characterization of temperature-sensitive mutants of influenza virus. Virology. 65:363-373.
165. Sugrue, R.J., and A.J. Hay. 1991. Structural characteristics of the M2 protein of influenza A viruses: evidence that it forms a tetrameric channel. Virology. 180:617-624.
166. Takizawa, T., R. Fukuda, T. Miyawaki, K. Ohashi, and Y. Nakanishi. 1995. Activation of the apoptotic Fas antigen-encoding gene upon influenza virus infection involving spontaneously produced beta-interferon. Virology. 209:288-296.
167. Takizawa, T., S. Matsukawa, Y. Higuchi, S. Nakamura, Y. Nakanishi, and R. Fukuda. 1993. Induction of programmed cell death (apoptosis) by influenza virus infection in tissue culture cells. J. Gen. Virol. 74:2347-2355.
168. Takizawa, T., K. Ohashi, and Y. Nakanishi. 1996. Possible involvement of double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase in cell death by influenza virus infection. J. Virol. 70:8128-8132.
169. Tan, S.L., and M.G. Katze. 1998. Biochemical and genetic evidence for complex formation between the influenza A virus NS1 protein and the interferon-induced PKR protein kinase. J. Interferon. Cytokine. Res. 18:757-766.
170. Tashiro, M., P. Ciborowski, H.D. Klenk, G. Pulverer, and R. Rott. 1987. Role of Staphylococcus protease in the development of influenza pneumonia. Nature. 325:536-537.
171. Tashiro, M., P. Ciborowski, M. Reinacher, G. Pulverer, H.D. Klenk, and R. Rott. 1987. Synergistic role of staphylococcal proteases in the induction of influenza virus pathogenicity. Virology. 157:421-430.
172. Tashiro, M., Y. Yokogoshi, K. Tobita, J.T. Seto, R. Rott, and H. Kido. 1992. Tryptase Clara, an activating protease for Sendai virus in rat lungs, is involved in pneumopathogenicity. J. Virol. 66:7211-7216.
173. Tatu, U., and A. Helenius. 1997. Interactions between newly synthesized glycoproteins, calnexin and a network of resident chaperones in the endoplasmic reticulum. J. Cell. Biol. 136:555-565.
174. Thomas, J.M., M.P. Stevens, N. Percy, and W.S. Barclay. 1998. Phosphorylation of the M2 protein of influenza A virus is not essential for virus viability. Virology. 252:54-64.
175. Thompson, C.B. 1995. Apoptosis in the pathogenesis and treatment of disease. Science. 267:1456-1462.
176. Ulmanen, I., B.A. Broni, and R.M. Krug. 1981. Role of two of the influenza virus core P proteins in recognizing cap 1 structures (m7GpppNm) on RNAs and in initiating viral RNA transcription. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 78:7355-7359.
177. Van Campen, H., B.C. Easterday, and V.S. Hinshaw. 1989. Virulent avian influenza A viruses: Their effect on avian lymphocytes and macrophages in vivo and in vitro. J. Gen. Virol. 70:2887-2895.
178. Veit, M., H.D. Klenk, A. Kendal, and R. Rott. 1991. The M2 protein of influenza A virus is acylated. J. Gen. Virol. 72:1461-1465.
179. Veit, M., E. Kretzschmar, K. Kuroda, W. Garten, M.F. Schmidt, H.D. Klenk, and R. Rott. 1991. Site-specific mutagenesis identifies three cysteine residues in the cytoplasmic tail as acylation sites of influenza virus hemagglutinin. J. Virol. 65:2491-2500.
180. Vogel, U., M. Kunerl, and C. Scholtissek. 1994. Influenza A virus late mRNAs are specifically retained in the nucleus in the presence of a methyltransferase or a protein kinase inhibitor. Virology. 198:227-233.
181. Walker, J.A., S.S. Molloy, G. Thomas, T. Sakaguchi, T. Yoshida, T.M. Chambers, and Y. Kawaoka. 1994. Sequence specificity of furin, a proprotein-processing endoprotease, for the hemagglutinin of a virulent avian influenza virus. J. Virol. 68:1213-1218.
182. Wang, P., P. Palese, and R.E. O'Neill. 1997. The NPI-1/NPI-3 (karyopherin alpha) binding site on the influenza, a virus nucleoprotein NP is a nonconventional nuclear localization signal. J Virol 71:1850-1856.
183. Weber, F., G. Kochs, S. Gruber, and O. Haller. 1998. A classical bipartite nuclear localization signal on Thogoto and influenza A virus nucleoproteins. Virology 250:9-18.
184. Whittaker, G., I. Kemler, and A. Helenius. 1995. Hyperphosphorylation of mutant influenza virus matrix protein, Ml, causes its retention in the nucleus. J. Virol. 69:439-445.
185. Wolff, T., R.E. O'Neill, and P. Palese. 1996. Interaction cloning of NS1-I, a human protein that binds to the non-structural NS1 proteins of influenza A and B viruses. J. Virol. 70:5363-5372.
186. Wolff, T., R.E. O'Neill, and P. Palese. 1998. NS1-Binding protein (NS1-BP): a novel human protein that interacts with the influenza A virus nonstructural NS1 protein is relocalized in the nuclei of infected cells. J. Virol. 72:7170-7180.
187. Ye, Z.P., R. Pal, J.W. Fox, and R.R. Wagner. 1987. Functional and antigenic domains of the matrix (M1) protein of influenza A virus. J. Virol. 61:239-246.
188. Zurcher, T., G. Luo, and P. Palese. 1994. Mutations at palmitylation sites of the influenza virus hemagglutinin affect virus formation. J. Virol. 68:5748-5754.