Modeling primary productivity of the terrestrial biosphere in changing environments: Toward a dynamic biosphere model

Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences

Volumn 17, Issue 5, 1998, Pages 541-557

  Tian, Hanqin ^a   Hall, Charles A S ^b   Qi, Ye ^c  

^a ECOSYSTEMS CENTER   (United States)

^b STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Biogeochemistry; Carbon cycle; Ecosystem dynamics; Global change; Succession

Indexed keywords

EID: 0031668158     PISSN: 07352689     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0735-2689(98)00364-5     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Bonan, G. B. 1995a. Comparison of two land surface process models using prescribed forcings, J. Geophys. Res. 100, 2817-2831.
2. Bonan, G. B. 1995b. Land-atmosphere interactions for climate system models: coupling biophysical, biogeochemical, and ecosystem dynamical processes, Remote Sens. Environ. 51, 57-73.
3. Bormann, F. H. and Likens, G. E. 1979. Pattern and Process in a Forested Ecosystem, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
4. Botkin, D. B., Janak, J. F., and Wallis, J. R. 1972. Some ecological consequences of a computer model of forest growth. J. Ecol. 60, 948-972.
5. Botkin, D. B. 1993. Forest Dynamics: An Ecological Model, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
6. Clark, W., Richards, J., and Flint, E. 1986. Human transformation of the Earth's vegetation cover: past and future impacts of agricultural development and climate change. In: Climate-Vegetation Interactions. pp. 54-59. Rosenzweig, C. and Dickison, R., Eds., Report OIES-2, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR).
7. 2 sink?, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 7, 599-609.
8. Dale, V. H., O'Neill, R. V., Pedlowski, M. A., and Southworth, F. 1993. Causes and effects of land-use change in central Rondonia, Brazil, Photogram. Eng. Remote Sensing 59, 997-1005.
9. Davis, M. B. 1989. Lags in vegetation response to greenhouse warming, Clim. Change 15, 75-82.
10. Detwiler, R. P. and Hall, C. A. S. 1988. Tropical forests and the global carbon budget, Science 239, 42-47.
11. Díaz, S., Grime, J. P., Harris, J., and McPherson, E. 1993. Evidence of a feedback mechanism limiting plant response to elevated carbon dioxide, Nature 364, 616-617.
12. Dickinson, R. E. 1992. Changes in land use. In: Climate System Modeling, pp. 149-172. Trenberth, K. E., Ed., Cambridge University Press.
13. Dickinson, R. E. 1995. Land processes in climate models, Remote Sens. Environ. 51, 27-38.
14. Dickinson, R. E., Henderson-Sellers, A., Kennedy, P. J., and Wilson, M. F. 1986. Biosphere-atmosphere transfer scheme (BATS) for the NCAR Community Climate Model, Tech. Note, NCAR/TN-275+STR, Boulder.
15. Dixon, R. K., Brown, S. A., Houghton, R. A., Solomon, A. M., Trexler, M. C., and Wisniewski, J. 1994. Carbon pools and flux of global forest ecosystems, Science 263, 185-190.
16. Ehleringer, J. R. and Field, C. B. 1993. Scaling Physiological Processes: Leaf to Globe, Academic Press, San Diego.
17. Emanual, W. R. 1996. Modeling carbon cycling on disturbed landscape, Ecol. Model. 89, 1-12.
18. 2. Tellus 47B, 35-52.
19. 3 species, Planta 149, 79-90.
20. Field, C. B., Randerson, J. T., and Malmstrom, C. M. 1995. Global net primary production: combinig ecology and remote sensing, Remote Sens. Environ. 51, 74-88.
21. Foley, J. A., Kutzbach, J. E., Coe, M. T., and Levis, S. 1994. Feedbacks between climate and boreal forests during the mid-Holocene, Nature 371, 52-54.
22. 2, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 2999-3015.
23. Friend, A. D., Shugart, H. H., and Running, S. W. 1993. A physiology-based gap model of forest dynamics, Ecology 74, 792-797.
24. Friend, A. D., Stevens, A. K., Knox, R. G. and Cannell, M. G. R. 1997. A process-based, terrestrial biosphere model of ecosystem dynamics (Hybrid v3.0), Ecol. Model. 95, 249-287.
25. 2 fertilization to the missing sink, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 9, 541-556.
26. 2 effects on vegetation for the global carbon budget. In: The Global Carbon Cycle, pp. 165-205. Heimann, M., Eds., Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute, Il Ciocco, Italy.
27. Goulden, M. L., Munger, J. W., Fan, S., Daube, B. C., and Wofsy, S. C. 1996. Exchange of carbon diocide by a deciduous forest response to interannual climate variability, Science 271, 1576-1578.
28. Goldewijk, K. K., van Minnen, J. G., Kreileman, J. G. G., Vlodbeld, M., and Leemans, R. 1994. Simulating the carbon flux between the terrestrial environment and the atmosphere, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 76, 199-230.
29. Grace, J., Lloyd, J., McIntyre, J., Miranda, A. C., Meri, P., Miranda, H., Nobre, C., Monteith, J., Massheder, J., Wright, I., and Gash, J. 1995. Carbon dioxide uptake by an undisturbed tropical rain forest in southwest Amazonia, 1992 to 1993, Science 270, 778-780.
30. Hall, C. A. S. 1988. An assessment of several of most important theoretical models in ecology and of the data used in their support, Ecol. Model. 43, 5-31.
31. Hall, C. A. S., Ekdahl, C. A., and Wartenberg, D. E. 1975. A 15-year record of the biotic metabolism in the Northern Hemisphere, Nature 255, 136-138.
32. Hall, C. A. S. and Day, J. 1977. Ecosystem Modeling in Theory and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
33. Hall, C. A. S., Cleveland, C. J., and Kaufmann, R. 1986. Energy and Resource Quality: The Ecology of the Economic Process, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
34. Hall, C. A. S. and Uhlig, J. 1991. Refining estimates of carbon release from tropical land use change, Can. J. For. Res. 21, 118-131.
35. Hall, C. A. S., Taylor, M. R., and Everham, E. 1992. A geographically-based ecosystem model and its application to the carbon balance of the Luquillo forest, Puerto Rico, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 64, 385-404.
36. Hall, C. A. S. and Hall, M. 1993. The efficiency of land and energy use in tropical economies and agriculture, Agricul., Ecosyst. Environ. 46, 1-30.
37. Hall, C. A. S., Tian, H., Qi, Y., Pontius, G., and Cornell, J. 1995. Modeling spatial and temporal pattern of tropical land use change, J. Biogeog. 22, 753-757.
38. Hall, C. A. S., Tian, H., and Qi, Y. 1993. Responses of the biosphere to changing global environments: evidence from the historic record of global biotic metabolism, World Resource Rev. 5, 207-213.
39. Haxeltine, A., Prentice, I. C., and Cresswell, I. D. 1996. A coupled carbon and water flux model to predict vegetation structure, J. Veg. Sci. 7, 651-666.
40. Henderson-Sellers, A. 1993. Continental vegetation as a dynamic component of global climate models: a preliminary assessment, Clim. Change 23, 337-377.
41. 2 transport based on observed winds. II. Model description and simulated tracer experiments. In: Peterson, J. H., Ed., Aspects of Climatic Variability in the Pacific and Western Americas, Geophys. Monog. 55, 237-275.
42. 2: first results of a model intercomparison study, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 12, 10-24.
43. Houghton, R. A. 1994. The worldwide extent of land use change, Bioscience 44, 305-313.
44. Houghton, R. A. 1996. Terrestrial sources and sinks of carbon inferred from terrestrial data, Tellus 48B, 420-432.
45. 2 to the atmosphere, Ecol. Monogr. 53, 235-262.
46. 2sink, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 8, 307-333.
47. 2 transport based on observed winds. I. Analysis of observational data. In: Peterson, J. H., Ed., Aspects of Climatic Variability in the Pacific and Western Americas, Geophys. Monogr. 55, 165-236.
48. Keeling, C. D., Whorf, T. P., Wahlen, M., and van der Plicht, J. 1995. Interannual extremes in the rate of rise of atmospheric carbon dioxide since 1980, Nature 375, 666-670.
49. 2 concentration, Nature 381, 218-221.
50. Kicklighter, D. W., Melillo, J. M., Peterjohn, W. T., Rastetter, E. B., McGuire, A. D., and Steudler, P. A. 1994. Aspects of spatial and temporal aggregation in estimating regional carbon dioxide fluxes from temperate forest soils, J. Geophys. Res. 99, 1303-1315.
51. 2 to the atmosphere, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 64, 365-383.
52. Kindermann, J., et al. 1993. Structure of a global carbon exchange model for the terrestrial biosphere: the Frankfurt Biosphere Model (FBM), Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 70, 675-684.
53. Kindermann, J., Wurth, G., Kohmaier, G. and Badeck, F.-W. 1996. Interannual variations of carbon flux exchange, Glob. Bio-geochem. Cycl. 10, 737-755.
54. Kumar, M. and Monteith, J. L. 1981. Remote sensing of crop growth. In: Plant and Daylight Spectrum, pp. 133-144, Smith, H., Eds., Academic Press, London.
55. Lambin, E. 1994. Modeling Deforestation Processes: A Review. TREES Series B/11. European Commission DG XIII, Luxembourg.
56. Lieth, H. 1975. Modeling the primary productivity of the world. In: Primary Productivity of the Biosphere, pp. 237-263. Lieth and Whittaker, R. H., Eds., Springer-Verlag, New York.
57. Likens, G. E., Bormann, F. H., and Johnson, N. M. 1981. Interactions between major biogeochemical cycles in terrestrial ecosystems. In: Some Perspective of the Major Biogeochemical Cycles, pp. 93-111. Likens, G. E., Eds., John Wiley & Sons, New York.
58. Lovelock, J. E. 1987. Geophysiology: a new look at earth science. In: The Geophysiology of Amazonia: Vegetation and Climate Interactions, pp. 11-24. Dickison, R. E., Eds., John Wiley & Sons, New York.
59. Lovelock, J. E. and Kump, L. R. 1994. Failure of climate regulation in a geophysiological model, Nature 369, 732-734.
60. Matson, P. A., Parton, W. J., Power, A. G., and Swift, M. J. 1997. Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties, Science 277, 504-507.
61. McGuire, A. D., Melillo, J. M., Joyce, L. A., Kicklighter, D. W., Grace, A. L., Moore, B., III, and Vörösmarty, C. J. 1992. Interactions between carbon and nitrogen dynamics in estimating net primary productivity for potential vegetation in North America, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 6, 101-124.
62. McGuire, A. D., Joyce, L. A., Kicklighter, D. W., Melillo, J. M., Esser, G., and Vorosmarty, C. J. 1993. Productivity response of climax temperate florests to elevated temperature and carbon dioxide: a North American comparison between two global models, Clim. Change 24, 287-310.
63. McGuire, A. D., Melillo, J. M., Kicklighter, D. W., and Joyce, L. A. 1995. Equilibrium responses of soil carbon to climate change: empirical and process-based estimates, J. Biogeog. 22, 785-503.
64. Melillo, J. M. 1994. Modeling land-atmosphere interactions: a short review. In: Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective, pp. 387-410. Meyer, W. B. and Turner, B. L., II, Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
65. 2 to the atmosphere, Tellus 40B, 116-128.
66. Melillo, J. M., Steudler, P. A., Aber, J. D., and Bowden, R. D. 1989. Atmospheric deposition and nutrient cycling. In: Exchange of Trace Gases between Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Atmosphere, pp. 263-280. Andreae, M. O. and Schimel, D. S., Eds., John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Dahlem, Konferenzen.
67. Melillo, J. M., McGuire, A. D., Kicklighter, D. W., Moore, B., III, Vörösmarty, C. J., and Schloss, A. L. 1993. Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production, Nature 363, 234-240.
68. Melillo, J. M., Kicklighter, D. W., McGuire, A. D., Peterjohn, W. T., and Newkirk, K. 1995. Global change and its effects on soil organic carbon stocks. In: Dahlem Conference Proceedings, pp. 175-189. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
69. Melillo, J. M., Houghton, R., Kicklighter, D. W., and McGuire, A. D. 1996. Tropical deforestation and the global carbon budget, Ann. Rev. Energy Environ. 21, 293-310.
70. Melillo, J. M., Prentice, I. C., Farquhar, G. D., Schulze, E.-D., and Sala, O. E. 1996. Terrestrial biotic responses to environmental change and feedbacks to climate. In: Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change, pp. 444-481. Houghton, J. T., Meira Filho, L. G., Callander, B. A., Harris, N., Kattenberg, A., and Maskell, K., Eds., Cambridge University Press.
71. Minnen, J. G. V., Goldewijk, K. K., and Leemans, R. 1995. The importance of feedback processes and vegetation transition in the terrestrial carbon cycle, J. Biogeog. 22, 805-814.
72. 2 during climatic change, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 70, 659-673.
73. Neilson, R. P. and Marks, D. 1995. A global perspective of regional vegetation and hydrologic sensitivity from climate change, J. Veg. Sci. 5, 715-730.
74. Odum, H. T. 1983. Systems Ecology: An Introduction, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
75. Oreskes, N., Shrader-Frechette, K., and Belitz, K. 1994. Verification, validation and confirmation of numerical models in the earth sciences, Science 263, 641-646.
76. Overpeck, J. T., Bartlein, P. J., and Webb, T., III. 1991. Potential magnitude of future vegetation change in eastern north America: comparisons with the past, Science 254, 692-695.
77. Overpeck, J. T. 1995. Paleoclimtology and climate system dynamics, Rev. Geophys. Suppl. 863-871.
78. Parton, W. J., Stewart, J. W., and Cole, C. V. 1988. Dynamics of C, N, P and S in grassland soils: a model, Biogeochem. 5, 109-131.
79. Patten, B. C. 1978. Systems approach to concept of environment, Ohio J. Sci. 78, 206-222.
80. Patten, B. C. and Jorgensen, S. E. 1994. Complex Ecology: The Part-Whole Relation in Ecosystems, Prentice-Hall, Canada.
81. Peng, C. H., Guiot, J., Campo, E. V., and Cheddadi, R. 1995. Temporal and spatial variations of terrestrial biomes and carbon storage since 13000 YR BP in Europe: reconstruction from pollen data and statistical models. Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 82, 375-390.
82. Post, W. M., King, A., and Wullschleger, S. 1997. Historical variations of terrestrial carbon storage, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 11, 99-109.
83. Potter, C. S., Randerson, J., Field, C. B., Matson, P. A., Vitousek, P. M., Mooney, H. A., and Klooster, S. A. 1993. Terrestrial ecosystem production: a process model based on global satellite and surface data, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 7, 811-841.
84. Plochl, M. and Gramer, W. 1995. Coupling global models of vegetation structure and ecosystem processes, Tellus 47B, 240-250.
85. Prentice, I. C., Cramer, W., Harrison, S. P., Leemans, R., Monserud, R. A., and Solomon, A. M. 1992. A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate, J. Biogeog. 19, 117-134.
86. Prentice, K. and Fung, I. Y. 1990. The sensitivity of terrestrial carbon storage to climate change, Nature 346, 48-50.
87. Prince, S. D. and Goward S. N. 1995. Global net primary production: a remote sensing approach, J. Biogeog. 22, 815-835.
88. Qi, Y., Tian, H., and Hall, C. A. S. 1992. Study of a boreal forest landscape with remote sensing and GIS. I. Background and methodology. Proc. ASPRS/ACSM/RT 92 convention on "Monitoring and Mapping Global Change", Resource Technol. 5, 417-427.
89. Qi, Y., Tian, H., and Hall, C. A. S. 1992. Study of a boreal forest landscape with remote sensing and GIS. IV. Modeling the landscape change. Proc. ASPRS/ACSM/RT 92 convention on "Monitoring and Mapping Global Change", Resource Technology 5, 447-453.
90. Qi, Y. and Hall, C. A. S. 1995. Biosphere models in context of global change: simulation of primary productivity, in Lectures in Modern Ecology, PP. 129-141. Li, B., Eds., Science Press.
91. Qi, Y. and Wu, J. 1996. Effects of changing spatial resolution on the results of landscape pattern analysis using spatial autocorrelation indices, Landscape Ecol. 11, 39-49.
92. Qi, Y., Hall, C. A. S., Tian, H., and Uhlig, J. 1996. A rule-based spatial model of land-use change and carbon dynamics, Geo. Info. Sci. 2, 24-36.
93. Qi, Y. and Gong, P. 1996. Metabolic and phenological response of vegetation to temperature gradient: evidence derived from AVHRR data, Geo. Info. Sci. 2, 64-72.
94. Raich, J. W., Rastetter, E. B., Melillo, J. M., Kicklighter, D. W., et al. 1991. Potential net primary productivity in South America: application of a global model, Ecol. Appl. 1, 399-429.
95. Rastetter, E. B. 1996. Validating models of ecosystem response to global change, BioScience 46, 190-198.
96. Rastetter, E. B., King, A. W., Cosby, B. J., Hornberger, G. M., Oneill, R. V., and Hobbie, J. 1992. Aggregating fine-scale ecological knowledge to model coarser-scale attributes of ecosystems, Ecol. Appl. 2, 55-70.
97. Rosswall, T., Woodmansee, R. G., and Risser, P. G., Eds. 1988. Scale and Global Change, Wiley, New York.
98. Rotmans, J. and den Elzen, M. G. J. 1993. Modeling feedback mechanisms in the carbon cycle: balancing the carbon budget, Tellus 45B, 301-320.
99. Ruimy, A., Dedieu, G., and Saugier, B. 1994. Methodology for the estimation of terrestrial net primary production from remotely sensed data, J. Geophys. Res. 99, 5263-5283.
100. Running, S. W. and Gower, S. T. 1991. FOREST-BGC, a general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional application, Tree Physiol. 9, 147-160.
101. Running, S. W. and Hunt, E. R., Jr., 1993. Generalization of a forest ecosystem process model for other biomes, BIOME-BGC, and an application for global-scale models. In: Scaling Processes Between Leaf and Landscape Levels, pp. 141-158. Ehleringer, J. R. and Field, C., Eds., Academic Press, Orlando.
102. Schimel, D. S., Alves, D., Enting, I., Heimann, M., et al. 1996. Radiative forcing of climate change. In: Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change. pp. 67-131. Houghton, J. T., Meira Filho, L. G., Callander, B. A., Harris, N., Kattenberg, A., and Maskell, K., Eds., Cambridge University Press.
103. Schimel, D. S., Braswell, B. H., McKeown, R., Ojima, D. S., Parton, W. J., and Pulliam, W. 1996. Climate and nitrogen controls on the geography and timescales of terrestrial biogeochemical cycling, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 10, 677-692.
104. Schimel, D. S., et al. 1997. Spatial variability in ecosystem processes at the continental scale: models, data, and the role of disturbance, Ecol. Monogr. 67, 251-271.
105. Schindler, D. W. and Bayley, S. E. 1993. The biosphere as an increasing sink for atmospheric carbon: estimates from increased nitrogen deposition, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 7, 717-734.
106. Sellers, P. J., et al. 1995. Remote sensing of the land surface for studies of global change: models-algorithms-experiments, Remote Sens. Environ. 51, 3-26.
107. Sellers, P. J., Mintz, Y., Sud, Y. C., and Dalcher, A. 1986. A simple biosphere model (SiB) for use within general circulation models, J. Atmos. Sci. 43, 505-531.
108. 2 on climate, Science 271, 1402-1406.
109. Sellers, P. J., Dickinson, R. E., Randall, D. A., Betts, A. K., et al. 1997. Modeling the exchanges of energy, water, and carbon between continents and the atmosphere, Science 275, 502-509.
110. Skole, D. and Tucker, C. J. 1993. Tropical deforestation and habitat fragmentation in the Amazon: satellite data from 1978 to 1988, Science 260, 1905-1910.
111. Shugart, H. H. 1984. A Theory of Forest Dynamics, Springer-Verlag, New York.
112. Smith, T. M. and Shugart, H. H. 1993. The transient response of terrestrial carbon storage to a perturbed climate, Nature 361, 523-526.
113. 2-induced climate change: simulation modeling experiments in eastern North America, Oecologia 68, 567-579.
114. Solomon, A. M., Prentice, K. C., Leemans R., and Gramer W. P. 1993. The interaction of climate and land use in future terrestrial carbon storage and release, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 70, 595-614.
115. TEMPO. 1996. Potential role of vegetation feed-back in the climate sensitivity of high-latitude regions: a case study at 6000 years B. P., Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 10, 727-736.
116. Tans, P. P., Fung, I., and Takahashi, T. 1990. Observational constraints on the global atmospheric carbon budget, Science 247, 1431-1438.
117. Tian, H. 1993. Identification and classification of forest landscape pattern: fuzzy modeling and processing of remote sensing image, Ground Sensing, SPIE 1941, 61-67.
118. Tian, H. and Qi, Y. 1990. An analysis on ecological succession processes. In: Advance in Modern Ecology, pp. 90-100. Ma Shijun, Ed., Science Press, Beijing,
119. Tian, H. and Pan, S. 1991. Stability and design of landscape organization. In: Landscape Ecology: Theory, Methods and Application, pp. 47-51. Xiao, D., Eds., Chinese Forestry Press, Beijing.
120. Tian, H., Qi, Y., and Hall, C. A. S. 1992a. Study of a boreal forest landscape with remote sensing and GIS. II. Pattern of primary landscape. Proc. ASPRS/ACSM/RT 92 convention on "Monitoring and Mapping Global Change", Resource Technol. 5, 428-438.
121. Tian, H., Qi, Y., and Hall, C. A. S. 1992b. Study of a boreal forest landscape with remote sensing and GIS. III. Impact of forest cutting on landscape change. Proc. ASPRS/ACSM/RT 92 Convention on "Monitoring and Mapping Global Change", Resource Technol. 5, 439-446.
122. Tian, H., Xu, H., and Hall, C. A. S. 1995. Pattern and change of a boreal forest landscape in the northeastern China, Water, Air, and Soil Pollut. 82, 465-476.
123. 2 and temperature variability in the United States, Bull. Ecol. Soc. Am. 78, 196.
124. 2 and climate variability in the United States, Tellus (in press).
125. Tian, H., Melillo, J. M., Kicklighter, D. W., McGuire, A. D., Helfrich, J., Moore, B., III, and Vörösmarty, C. 1998b. Effect of interannual climate variability on carbon storage in undisturbed Amazonian ecosystems, Nature (in press).
126. Thompson, M. V., Randerson, J. T., Malmstrom, C. M., and Field, C. B. 1996. Change in net primary production and heterotrophic respiration: how much is necessary to sustain the terrestrial carbon sink, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 10, 711-726.
127. Turner, B., II, Clark, W., Kates, R., Richards, J., Mathews, J., and Meyer, W. 1990. The Earth as Transformed by Human Action, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
128. Turner, B., II, Moss, R., and Skole, D. 1993. Relating Land Use and Global Land-Cover Change: A Proposal for an IGBP-HDP Core Project. IGBP Report No. 24.
129. VEMAP Members. 1995. VEMAP: a comparison of biogeography and biogeochemistry models in the context of global climate change, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 9, 407-437.
130. 2 uptake by northern woodlands, Science 260, 1314-1317.
131. Woodward, F. I., Smith, T. M., and Emanuel, W. R. 1995. A global primary productivity and phytogeography model, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycl. 9, 471-490.