메뉴 건너뛰기




Volumn 7, Issue 5, 1996, Pages 651-666

A coupled carbon and water flux model to predict vegetation structure

Author keywords

Australia; Climate change; Foliage projective cover; Map comparison; Net primary productivity; Plant type; Potential vegetation; Soil texture

Indexed keywords

BIOME2; CARBON FLUX; MODELLING; VEGETATION STRUCTURE; WATER FLUX;

EID: 0030403480     PISSN: 11009233     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3236377     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (100)

References (74)
  • 1
    • 85035183991 scopus 로고
    • Third Series, Vegetation. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra
    • Anon. 1990. Atlas of Australian resources. Third Series, Vol. 6, Vegetation. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.
    • (1990) Atlas of Australian Resources , vol.6
  • 2
    • 85035190382 scopus 로고
    • NRIC & CSIRO, Canberra
    • Anon. 1991. Digital soil atlas: After Northcote, K. H. et al. 1960-68. NRIC & CSIRO, Canberra.
    • (1991) Digital Soil Atlas , pp. 1960-1968
    • Northcote, K.H.1
  • 3
    • 0000451192 scopus 로고
    • Improved ground hydrology for climate models (GCMs) soil water movement and evapotranspiration
    • Abramopoulos, F., Rosenzweig, C., & Choudhury, B. J. 1988. Improved ground hydrology for climate models (GCMs) soil water movement and evapotranspiration. J. Clim. 1: 921-941.
    • (1988) J. Clim. , vol.1 , pp. 921-941
    • Abramopoulos, F.1    Rosenzweig, C.2    Choudhury, B.J.3
  • 4
    • 0027010136 scopus 로고
    • Spatial heterogeneity in vegetation canopies and remote sensing of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation: A modelling study
    • Asrar, G., Myneni, R.B. & Choudhury, B.J. 1992. Spatial heterogeneity in vegetation canopies and remote sensing of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation: A modelling study. Remote Sens. Environ. 41: 85-103.
    • (1992) Remote Sens. Environ. , vol.41 , pp. 85-103
    • Asrar, G.1    Myneni, R.B.2    Choudhury, B.J.3
  • 5
    • 0037761893 scopus 로고
    • Freshwater wetlands
    • Groves, R.H. (ed.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
    • Briggs, S.V. 1981. Freshwater wetlands. In: Groves, R.H. (ed.) Australian vegetation, pp. 335-360. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
    • (1981) Australian Vegetation , pp. 335-360
    • Briggs, S.V.1
  • 7
    • 84984108856 scopus 로고
    • Variations in vegetation and soil patterns across the Hawkesbury Sandstone plateau from Barren Grounds to Fitzroy Falls, New South Wales
    • Burrough, P.A., Brown, L. & Morris, E.C. 1977. Variations in vegetation and soil patterns across the Hawkesbury Sandstone plateau from Barren Grounds to Fitzroy Falls, New South Wales. Aust. J. Ecol. 2: 137-159.
    • (1977) Aust. J. Ecol. , vol.2 , pp. 137-159
    • Burrough, P.A.1    Brown, L.2    Morris, E.C.3
  • 8
    • 0026304090 scopus 로고
    • BIOCLIM - A bioclimatic analysis and prediction system
    • Margules, C.R. & Austin, M.P. (eds.) CSIRO, Canberra
    • Busby, J.R. 1991. BIOCLIM - A bioclimatic analysis and prediction system. In: Margules, C.R. & Austin, M.P. (eds.) Nature conservation: cost effective biological surveys and data analysis, pp. 64-68. CSIRO, Canberra.
    • (1991) Nature Conservation: Cost Effective Biological Surveys and Data Analysis , pp. 64-68
    • Busby, J.R.1
  • 9
    • 0028323743 scopus 로고
    • Biomes computed from simulated climatologies
    • Claussen, M. & Esch, M. 1994. Biomes computed from simulated climatologies. Clim. Dyn. 9: 235-243.
    • (1994) Clim. Dyn. , vol.9 , pp. 235-243
    • Claussen, M.1    Esch, M.2
  • 10
    • 0021639956 scopus 로고
    • A statistical exploration of the relationships of soil moisture characteristics to the physical properties of soils
    • Cosby, B.J., Hornberger, G.M., Clapp, R.B. & Ginn, T.R. 1984. A statistical exploration of the relationships of soil moisture characteristics to the physical properties of soils. Water Resour. Res. 20: 682-690.
    • (1984) Water Resour. Res. , vol.20 , pp. 682-690
    • Cosby, B.J.1    Hornberger, G.M.2    Clapp, R.B.3    Ginn, T.R.4
  • 11
    • 0022205894 scopus 로고
    • Water-limited equilibrium of savanna vegetation systems
    • Eagleson, P.S. & Segarra, R.I. 1985. Water-limited equilibrium of savanna vegetation systems. Water Resour. Res. 21: 1483-1493.
    • (1985) Water Resour. Res. , vol.21 , pp. 1483-1493
    • Eagleson, P.S.1    Segarra, R.I.2
  • 14
    • 0027333476 scopus 로고
    • Evolutionary and ecological aspects of photosynthetic pathway variation
    • Ehleringer, J.R. & Monson, R.K. 1993. Evolutionary and ecological aspects of photosynthetic pathway variation. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 24: 411-439.
    • (1993) Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. , vol.24 , pp. 411-439
    • Ehleringer, J.R.1    Monson, R.K.2
  • 15
    • 0020370253 scopus 로고
    • Transpirational supply and demand: Plant soil and atmospheric effects evaluated by simulation
    • Federer, C. A. 1982. Transpirational supply and demand: Plant soil and atmospheric effects evaluated by simulation. Water Resour. Res. 18: 355-362.
    • (1982) Water Resour. Res. , vol.18 , pp. 355-362
    • Federer, C.A.1
  • 16
    • 0024249113 scopus 로고
    • On the role of photosynthetic responses in contrasting the habitat distribution of rainforest plants
    • Field, C.B. 1988. On the role of photosynthetic responses in contrasting the habitat distribution of rainforest plants. Aust. J. Plant Physiol. 15: 343-358.
    • (1988) Aust. J. Plant Physiol. , vol.15 , pp. 343-358
    • Field, C.B.1
  • 17
    • 84941103798 scopus 로고
    • Ecological scaling of carbon gain to stress and resource availability
    • Mooney, A., Winner, W.E. & Pell, E.J. (eds.) San Diego Academic Press, San Diego, CA
    • Field, C.B. 1991. Ecological scaling of carbon gain to stress and resource availability. In: Mooney, A., Winner, W.E. & Pell, E.J. (eds.) Response of plants to multiple stresses, pp. 35-65. San Diego Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
    • (1991) Response of Plants to Multiple Stresses , pp. 35-65
    • Field, C.B.1
  • 18
    • 0002089912 scopus 로고
    • The climatic factor in Australian grassland ecology
    • Moore, R.H. (ed.) Australian National University Press, Canberra
    • Fitzpatrick, E.A. & Nix, H.A. 1970. The climatic factor in Australian grassland ecology. In: Moore, R.H. (ed.) Australian grasslands, pp. 3-26. Australian National University Press, Canberra.
    • (1970) Australian Grasslands , pp. 3-26
    • Fitzpatrick, E.A.1    Nix, H.A.2
  • 19
    • 0000523820 scopus 로고
    • Competition and coexistence in a North Carolina grassland
    • Fowler, N. 1981. Competition and coexistence in a North Carolina grassland. J. Ecol. 69: 843-854.
    • (1981) J. Ecol. , vol.69 , pp. 843-854
    • Fowler, N.1
  • 20
    • 0003287423 scopus 로고
    • 2 effects on vegetation for the global carbon budget
    • Heimann, M. (ed.) Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg 1993
    • 2 effects on vegetation for the global carbon budget. In: Heimann, M. (ed.) The global carbon cycle, pp. 159-200. Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg 1993.
    • (1993) The Global Carbon Cycle , pp. 159-200
    • Gifford, R.1
  • 21
    • 0024226388 scopus 로고
    • Adaptation to sun and shade: A whole-plant perspective
    • Givnish, T.J. 1988. Adaptation to sun and shade: A whole-plant perspective. Aust. J. Ecol. 15: 64-92.
    • (1988) Aust. J. Ecol. , vol.15 , pp. 64-92
    • Givnish, T.J.1
  • 22
    • 0343441598 scopus 로고
    • Natural grasslands
    • Groves, R.H. (ed.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
    • Groves, R.H. & Williams, O.B. 1981. Natural grasslands. In: Groves, R.H. (ed.) Australian vegetation, pp. 293-316. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
    • (1981) Australian Vegetation , pp. 293-316
    • Groves, R.H.1    Williams, O.B.2
  • 23
    • 0002485651 scopus 로고
    • Respiration
    • Raghavendra, A.S. (ed.) Wiley, New York, NY
    • Hagihara & Hozumi, K. 1991. Respiration. In: Raghavendra, A.S. (ed.) Physiology of trees, pp. 87-110. Wiley, New York, NY.
    • (1991) Physiology of Trees , pp. 87-110
    • Hagihara1    Hozumi, K.2
  • 24
    • 0020925391 scopus 로고
    • 4 grasses in Australia in relation to climate
    • 4 grasses in Australia in relation to climate. Oecologia (Berl.) 57: 113-128.
    • (1983) Oecologia (Berl.) , vol.57 , pp. 113-128
    • Hattersley, P.W.1
  • 25
    • 85035182814 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A general model for the light-use efficiency of primary production
    • In press
    • Haxeltine, A. & Prentice, I. C. In press. A general model for the light-use efficiency of primary production. Funct. Ecol.
    • Funct. Ecol.
    • Haxeltine, A.1    Prentice, I.C.2
  • 26
    • 0024258185 scopus 로고
    • The temperature-dependance of photosynthesis of some Australian temperate rainforest trees and its biogeographical significance
    • Hill, R.S., Read, J. & Busby, J.R. 1988. The temperature-dependance of photosynthesis of some Australian temperate rainforest trees and its biogeographical significance. J. Biogeogr. 15: 431-449.
    • (1988) J. Biogeogr. , vol.15 , pp. 431-449
    • Hill, R.S.1    Read, J.2    Busby, J.R.3
  • 27
    • 0001176409 scopus 로고
    • Nitrogen use efficiency in instantaneous and daily photosynthesis of leaves in the canopy of a Solidago altissima stand
    • Hirose, T. & Werger, M.J.A. 1987. Nitrogen use efficiency in instantaneous and daily photosynthesis of leaves in the canopy of a Solidago altissima stand. Physiol. Plant. 70: 215-222.
    • (1987) Physiol. Plant. , vol.70 , pp. 215-222
    • Hirose, T.1    Werger, M.J.A.2
  • 28
    • 0021190486 scopus 로고
    • Estimating monthly mean values of daily total solar radiation for Australia
    • Hutchinson, M.F., Booth, T.H., McMahon, J.P. & Nix, H.A. 1984. Estimating monthly mean values of daily total solar radiation for Australia. Solar Energy 32: 277-290.
    • (1984) Solar Energy , vol.32 , pp. 277-290
    • Hutchinson, M.F.1    Booth, T.H.2    McMahon, J.P.3    Nix, H.A.4
  • 29
    • 0022857426 scopus 로고
    • Stomatal control of transpiration: Scaling up from leaf to region
    • Jarvis, P.G. & McNaughton, K.G. 1986. Stomatal control of transpiration: scaling up from leaf to region. Adv. Ecol. Res. 15: 1-49.
    • (1986) Adv. Ecol. Res. , vol.15 , pp. 1-49
    • Jarvis, P.G.1    McNaughton, K.G.2
  • 30
    • 0022230413 scopus 로고
    • Interactions of woody and herbaceous vegetation in a southern African savanna
    • Knoop, W.J. & Walker, B.H. 1985. Interactions of woody and herbaceous vegetation in a southern African savanna. J. Ecol. 73: 235-253.
    • (1985) J. Ecol. , vol.73 , pp. 235-253
    • Knoop, W.J.1    Walker, B.H.2
  • 35
    • 0002178010 scopus 로고
    • Potential and actual production in Australian forest stands
    • Landsberg, J.J. & Parsons, W. (eds.) CSIRO, Melbourne
    • Linder, S. 1985. Potential and actual production in Australian forest stands. In: Landsberg, J.J. & Parsons, W. (eds.) Research for forest management, pp. 11-35. CSIRO, Melbourne.
    • (1985) Research for Forest Management , pp. 11-35
    • Linder, S.1
  • 36
    • 0026080328 scopus 로고
    • Primary productivity in grasslands and coniferous forests with climate change: An overview
    • Long, S.P. & Hutchin, P.R. 1991. Primary productivity in grasslands and coniferous forests with climate change: An overview. Ecol. Appl. 12: 139-156.
    • (1991) Ecol. Appl. , vol.12 , pp. 139-156
    • Long, S.P.1    Hutchin, P.R.2
  • 38
    • 0020918464 scopus 로고
    • A model of competition between trees and grass for radiation, water and nutrients
    • McMurtrie, R. & Wolf, L. 1983. A model of competition between trees and grass for radiation, water and nutrients. Ann. Bot. (Lond.) 52: 449-458.
    • (1983) Ann. Bot. (Lond.) , vol.52 , pp. 449-458
    • McMurtrie, R.1    Wolf, L.2
  • 39
    • 0006438131 scopus 로고
    • A comparison of vegetation height in relation to the effectiveness of rainfall in the mediterranean and adjacent arid parts of Australia and South Africa
    • Milewski, A.V. 1981. A comparison of vegetation height in relation to the effectiveness of rainfall in the mediterranean and adjacent arid parts of Australia and South Africa. J. Biogeogr. 8: 107-116.
    • (1981) J. Biogeogr. , vol.8 , pp. 107-116
    • Milewski, A.V.1
  • 41
    • 0002941501 scopus 로고
    • Uber den Lichtfaktor in den Pflanzengesellschaften und seine Bedeutung für die Stoffproduktion
    • Monsi, M. & Saeki, T. 1953. Uber den Lichtfaktor in den Pflanzengesellschaften und seine Bedeutung für die Stoffproduktion. Jpn. J. Bot. 14: 22-52.
    • (1953) Jpn. J. Bot. , vol.14 , pp. 22-52
    • Monsi, M.1    Saeki, T.2
  • 42
    • 0000781739 scopus 로고
    • Solar radiation and productivity in tropical ecosystems
    • Monteith, J.L. 1972. Solar radiation and productivity in tropical ecosystems. J. Appl. Ecol. 9: 747-766.
    • (1972) J. Appl. Ecol. , vol.9 , pp. 747-766
    • Monteith, J.L.1
  • 43
    • 0001916640 scopus 로고
    • Does light limit crop production?
    • Johnson, C.B. (ed.) Butterworth, London
    • Monteith, J.L. 1981. Does light limit crop production? In: Johnson, C.B. (ed.) Physiological processes limiting plant productivity, pp. 23-38. Butterworth, London.
    • (1981) Physiological Processes Limiting Plant Productivity , pp. 23-38
    • Monteith, J.L.1
  • 44
    • 0028974497 scopus 로고
    • A model for predicting continental scale vegetation distribution and water balance
    • Neilson, R.P. 1995. A model for predicting continental scale vegetation distribution and water balance. Ecol. Appl. 5: 362-386.
    • (1995) Ecol. Appl. , vol.5 , pp. 362-386
    • Neilson, R.P.1
  • 45
    • 0028565726 scopus 로고
    • A global perspective of regional vegetation and hydrologic sensitivities from climate change
    • Neilson, R.P. & Marks, D. 1994. A global perspective of regional vegetation and hydrologic sensitivities from climate change. J. Veg. Sci. 5: 715-730.
    • (1994) J. Veg. Sci. , vol.5 , pp. 715-730
    • Neilson, R.P.1    Marks, D.2
  • 47
    • 0026082220 scopus 로고
    • The El Niño/Southern Oscillation and Australian vegetation
    • Nicholls, N. 1991. The El Niño/Southern Oscillation and Australian vegetation. Vegetatio 91: 23-36.
    • (1991) Vegetatio , vol.91 , pp. 23-36
    • Nicholls, N.1
  • 48
    • 0002996436 scopus 로고
    • Simplified simulation models based on specified minimum data sets: The CROPEVAL concept
    • Berg, A. (ed.) CEC, Rotterdam
    • Nix, H.A. 1981. Simplified simulation models based on specified minimum data sets: the CROPEVAL concept. In: Berg, A. (ed.) Application of remote sensing to agricultural production forecasting. CEC, Rotterdam.
    • (1981) Application of Remote Sensing to Agricultural Production Forecasting
    • Nix, H.A.1
  • 51
    • 0343191654 scopus 로고
    • Eucalyptus scrubs and shrublands
    • Groves, R.H. (ed.) Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
    • Parsons, R.F. 1981. Eucalyptus scrubs and shrublands. In: Groves, R.H. (ed.) Australian vegetation, pp. 227-252. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
    • (1981) Australian Vegetation , pp. 227-252
    • Parsons, R.F.1
  • 52
    • 0022946287 scopus 로고
    • The effect of changing climate on Australian biomass production - A preliminary study
    • Pittock, A.B. & Nix, H.A. 1986. The effect of changing climate on Australian biomass production - A preliminary study. Clim. Change 8: 243-255.
    • (1986) Clim. Change , vol.8 , pp. 243-255
    • Pittock, A.B.1    Nix, H.A.2
  • 53
    • 85035187560 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ecology and the earth system
    • in press H.J. Schellnhüber, H.J. (ed.) Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Potsdam
    • Prentice, I.C. in press. Ecology and the earth system. In: H.J. Schellnhüber, H.J. (ed.) Earth system analysis. Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Potsdam.
    • Earth System Analysis
    • Prentice, I.C.1
  • 55
    • 0027089143 scopus 로고
    • A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate
    • Prentice, I.C., Cramer. W., Harrison, S., Leemans, R., Monserud, R.A. & Solomon, A.M. 1992. A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate. J. Biogeogr. 19: 117-134.
    • (1992) J. Biogeogr. , vol.19 , pp. 117-134
    • Prentice, I.C.1    Cramer, W.2    Harrison, S.3    Leemans, R.4    Monserud, R.A.5    Solomon, A.M.6
  • 56
    • 0027878745 scopus 로고
    • A simulation model for the transient effects of climate change on forest landscapes
    • Prentice, I.C., Sykes, M.T. & Cramer, W. 1993a. A simulation model for the transient effects of climate change on forest landscapes. Ecol. Model. 65: 51-70.
    • (1993) Ecol. Model. , vol.65 , pp. 51-70
    • Prentice, I.C.1    Sykes, M.T.2    Cramer, W.3
  • 58
    • 0025528686 scopus 로고
    • Absorption of radiation by canopies and stand growth
    • Russell, G.B., Marshall, B. & Jarvis, P.G. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
    • Russell, G., Jarvis, P.G. & Monteith, J.L. 1989. Absorption of radiation by canopies and stand growth. In: Russell, G.B., Marshall, B. & Jarvis, P.G. Plant canopies: Their growth, form and function, pp. 21 -40. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
    • (1989) Plant Canopies: Their Growth, Form and Function , pp. 21-40
    • Russell, G.1    Jarvis, P.G.2    Monteith, J.L.3
  • 59
    • 0025994572 scopus 로고
    • Effects of climate change on plant respiration
    • Ryan, M.G. 1991. Effects of climate change on plant respiration. Ecol. Appl. 1: 157-167.
    • (1991) Ecol. Appl. , vol.1 , pp. 157-167
    • Ryan, M.G.1
  • 60
    • 0000633751 scopus 로고
    • Plant life forms and their carbon, water and nutrient relations
    • Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg
    • Schulze, E.D. 1982. Plant life forms and their carbon, water and nutrient relations. In: Encyclopedia of plant physiology 12B, pp. 615-676. Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
    • (1982) Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology , vol.12 B , pp. 615-676
    • Schulze, E.D.1
  • 61
    • 0027007605 scopus 로고
    • Canopy reflectance, photosynthesis and transpiration, III, a reanalysis using improved leaf models and a new canopy integration scheme
    • Sellers, P.J., Berry, J.A., Collatz, G.J., Field, C.B. & Hall, F.G. 1992. Canopy reflectance, photosynthesis and transpiration, III, A reanalysis using improved leaf models and a new canopy integration scheme. Remote Sens. Environ. 42: 187-216.
    • (1992) Remote Sens. Environ. , vol.42 , pp. 187-216
    • Sellers, P.J.1    Berry, J.A.2    Collatz, G.J.3    Field, C.B.4    Hall, F.G.5
  • 63
    • 0002211676 scopus 로고
    • Vegetation
    • Leeper, G.W. (ed.) 4th ed. (rev.) CSIRO Australia and Melbourne University Press, Melbourne
    • Specht, R.L. 1970. Vegetation. In: Leeper, G.W. (ed.) The Australian environment, pp. 44-67. 4th ed. (rev.) CSIRO Australia and Melbourne University Press, Melbourne.
    • (1970) The Australian Environment , pp. 44-67
    • Specht, R.L.1
  • 64
    • 84971074040 scopus 로고
    • Water use by perennial evergreen plant communities in Australia and Papua New Guninea
    • Specht, R.L. 1972. Water use by perennial evergreen plant communities in Australia and Papua New Guninea. Aust. J. Bot. 20: 273-299.
    • (1972) Aust. J. Bot. , vol.20 , pp. 273-299
    • Specht, R.L.1
  • 65
    • 0001170497 scopus 로고
    • Growth indices - Their role in understanding the growth, structure and distribution of Australian vegetation
    • Specht, R.L. 1981. Growth indices - their role in understanding the growth, structure and distribution of Australian vegetation. Oecologia (Berl.) 50: 347-356.
    • (1981) Oecologia (Berl.) , vol.50 , pp. 347-356
    • Specht, R.L.1
  • 66
    • 0002364611 scopus 로고
    • Measuring woody-tissue respiration and photosynthesis
    • Lassoie, J.P. & Hinckley, T.M. (eds.) CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
    • Sprugel, D.G. & Benecke, U. 1991. Measuring woody-tissue respiration and photosynthesis. In: Lassoie, J.P. & Hinckley, T.M. (eds.) Techniques and approaches in forest tree ecophysiology, pp. 329-355. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
    • (1991) Techniques and Approaches in Forest Tree Ecophysiology , pp. 329-355
    • Sprugel, D.G.1    Benecke, U.2
  • 67
    • 0025247546 scopus 로고
    • A framework for the ecology of arid Australia
    • Stafford Smith, D.M. & Morton, S.R. 1990. A framework for the ecology of arid Australia. J. Arid Environ. 18: 255-278.
    • (1990) J. Arid Environ. , vol.18 , pp. 255-278
    • Stafford Smith, D.M.1    Morton, S.R.2
  • 68
    • 0000405323 scopus 로고
    • Aspects of stability and resilience of savanna ecosystems
    • Huntley, B. (ed.) Springer-Verlag, Berlin
    • Walker, B.H. & Noy-Meir, I. 1982 . Aspects of stability and resilience of savanna ecosystems. In: Huntley, B. (ed.) Ecology of tropical savannas, pp. 577-590. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
    • (1982) Ecology of Tropical Savannas , pp. 577-590
    • Walker, B.H.1    Noy-Meir, I.2
  • 70
    • 0002259496 scopus 로고
    • Australian savannas
    • Huntley, B. (ed.) Springer-Verlag, Berlin
    • Walker, J. & Gillison, A.N. 1982. Australian savannas. In: Huntley, B. (ed.) Ecology of tropical savannas, pp. 5-24. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
    • (1982) Ecology of Tropical Savannas , pp. 5-24
    • Walker, J.1    Gillison, A.N.2


* 이 정보는 Elsevier사의 SCOPUS DB에서 KISTI가 분석하여 추출한 것입니다.