HIV-1 subtypes: Implications for epidemiology, pathogenicity, vaccines and diagnostics

AIDS

Volumn 11, Issue 15, 1997, Pages 17-36

  Korber, Bette ^a   Hoelsher, Michael ^b   Pletschette, Michel ^c   Osmanov, Saladin ^d  

^a LOS ALAMOS NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^b LUDWIG MAXIMILIANS UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^c EUROPEAN COMMISSION   (Belgium)

^d UNAIDS   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

HIV; Molecular epidemiology; Pathogenicity; Phenotype; Subtype variation

Indexed keywords

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS VACCINE;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ARTICLE; DRUG DESIGN; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENICITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; VIRUS TYPING;

AIDS VACCINES; ANIMALS; DRUG DESIGN; HIV INFECTIONS; HIV-1; HUMANS; VARIATION (GENETICS);

EID: 9844260514     PISSN: 02699370     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (228)

1. Expert Group of the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS: Implications of HIV variability for transmission: scientific and policy issues. AIDS 1997, 11:UNAIDS1-UNAIDS13.
2. Hahn BH, Shaw GM, Arya SK, Popovic M, Gallo RC, Wong-Staal F: Molecular cloning and characterization of the HTLV-III virus associated with AIDS. Nature 1984, 312:166-169.
3. Zagury L, Franchini G, Reitz M, et al.: Genetic variability between isolates of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 2 is comparable to the variability among HIV types. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988, 85:5941-5945.
4. Srinivasan A, Anand R, York D, et al.: Molecular characterization of human immunodeficiency virus from Zaire: nucleotide sequence analysis identifies conserved and variable domains in the envelope gene. Gene 1987, 52:71-82.
5. Myers G: Human Retroviruses and AIDS 1987. Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory, Theoretical Biology and Biophysics; 1987.
6. Louwagie J, McCutchan FF, Peeters M, et al.: Phylogenetic analysis of gag genes from 70 international HIV-1 isolates provides evidence for multiple genotypes. AIDS 1993, 7:769-780.
7. Myers G, Pavlakis GN: Evolutionary potential of complex retroviruses. In The Retroviruses. Edited by Levy JA. New York: Plenum Press; 1992:51-104.
8. Gao F, Morrison SG, Robertson DL, et al.: Molecular cloning and analysis of functional envelope genes from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 sequence subtypes A through G. J Virol 1996, 70:1651-1657.
9. Louwagie J, Janssens W, Mascola J, et al.: Genetic diversity of the envelope glycoprotein from human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) isolates of African origin. J Virol 1995, 69:263-271.
10. Myers G: Human Retroviruses and AIDS. Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory, Theoretical Biology and Biophysics; 1996.
11. de Levs R, Vanderborght B, vanden Haesevelde M, et al.: Isolation and partial characterization of an unusual human immunodeficiency retrovirus from two persons of west-central African origin. J Virol 1990, 64:1207-1216.
12. Gurtler JG, Hauser PH, Eberle J, et al.: A new subtype of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (MVP-5180) from Cameroon. J Virol 1994, 68:1581-1585.
13. Loussert-Ajaka I, Chaix M, Korber B, et al.: The variability of HIV type 1 group O strains isolated from Cameroonian patients living in France. J Virol 1995, 69:5640-5649.
14. Zekeng L, Gurtler L, Afane Ze F, et al.: Prevalence of HIV-1 subtype O infection in Cameroon: preliminary results [letter]. AIDS 1994, 8:1626-1628.
15. Hunt JC, Golden AM, Vallari A, et al.: Molecular and serologic characterization of four HIV-1 group O from Equatorial Guinea. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 11 (suppl 1):S144.
16. Mauclére P, Loussert-Ajaka I, Damond F, et al.: Serological and virological characterization of HIV-1 group O infection in Cameroon. AIDS 1997, 11:445-453.
17. Peeters M, Gueye A, Mboup S, et al.: Geographical distribution of HIV-1 group O viruses in Africa. AIDS 1997, 11:493-498.
18. Rayfield MA, Sullivan P, Bandea CI, et al.: HIV-1 group O identified for the first time in the United States. MMWR 1996, 45:561-564.
19. Korber B, Moore J, D'Souza P, et al. (Eds): In HIV Molecular Immunology Database 1996. Part I. Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory, Theoretical Biology and Biophysics; 1996.
20. Soriano V, Gutteriez M, Garcia-Lerma G, et al.: First case of group O infection in Spain [letter]. Vox Sang 1996, 71:66.
21. Simon F, Ly ID, Baillou-Beaufils A, et al.: Sensitivity of screening kits for anti-HIV-1 subtype O antibodies [letter]. AIDS 1994, 8:1628-1629.
22. Loussert-Ajaka I, Ly TD, Chaix ML, et al.: HIV-1/HIV-2 seronegativity in HIV-1 subtype O infected patient. Lancet 1994, 343:1393-1394.
23. Schable C, Zekeng L, Pau CP, et al.: Sensitivity of United States HIV antibody tests for detection of HIV-1 group O infections. Lancet 1994, 344:1333-1334.
24. Gurtler L: Difficulties and strategies of HIV diagnosis. Lancet 1996, 348:176-179.
25. Hu DJ, Dondero TJ, Rayfield MA, et al.: The emerging genetic diversity of HIV: the importance of global surveillance for diagnostics, research, and prevention. JAMA 1996, 275:210-216.
26. Sharp PM, Robertson DL, Gao F, Hahn BH: Origins and diversity of human immunodeficiency viruses. AIDS 1994, 8 (suppl A1:S27-S42.
27. Gao L, Yue L, Robertson DL, et al.: Genetic diversity of human immunodeficiency virus type 2: evidence for distinct sequence subtypes with differences in virus biology. J Virol 1994, 68:7433-7447.
28. Kanki PJ, Travers KU, M'Boup S, et al.: Slower heterosexual spread of HIV-2 than HIV-1. Lancet 1994, 343:943-946.
29. De Cock KM, Adjorlolo G, Ekpini F, et al.: Epidemiology and transmission of HIV-2. Why there is no HIV-2 pandemic? JAMA 1993, 270:2083-2086.
30. Pfutzner A, Dietrich U, von Eichel U, et al.: HIV-1 and HIV-2 infections in a high-risk population in Bombay, India: evidence for the spread of HIV-2 and presence of a divergent HIV-1 subtype. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:972-977.
31. Grez M, Dietrich U, Balfe P, et al.: Genetic analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2) mixed infections in India reveals a recent spread of HIV-1 and HIV-2 from a single ancestor for each of these viruses. J Virol 1994, 68:2161-2168.
32. Lukashov VV, Goudsmit J: Evolution of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype-specific V3 domain is confined to a sequence space with a fixed distance to the subtype consensus. J Virol 1997, 71:6332-6338.
33. McCutchan FE, Salminen MO, Carr JK, Burke DS: HIV-1 genetic diversity. AIDS 1996, 10 (suppl 3):S13-S20.
34. Carr JK, Salminen MO, Koch C, et al.: Full-length sequence and mosaic structure of a human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolate from Thailand. J Virol 1996, 70:5935-5943.
35. Gao L, Robertson DL, Morrison SG, et al.: The heterosexual human immunodeficiency virus type 1 epidemic in Thailand is caused by an intersubtype (A/E) recombinant of African origin. J Virol 1996, 70:7013-7029.
36. Cornelissen M, Kampinga G, Zorgdrager T, Goudsmit J: Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtypes defined by env show high frequency of recombinant gag genes. The UNAIDS Network for HIV Isolation and Characterization. J Virol 1996, 70:8209-8212.
37. McCutchan F: Full length amplification, cloning and sequencing, and frequency of recombination events, relevance of recombination for subtype evolution in the past and future. Presented at the Workshop on HIV-1 Subtypes: Implications for Epidemiology, Pathogenicity, Vaccines and Diagnostics. Dar es Salaam, June 1997.
38. Kostrikis L, Bagdades E, Cao Y, Zhang L, Dimitriou D, Ho DD: Genetic analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 strains from patients in Cyprus: identification of a new subtype designated subtype I. J Virol 1995, 69:6122-6130.
39. Leitner T, Alaeus A, Marquina S, et al.: Yet another subtype of HIV type 1? AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1995, 11:995-997.
40. Bobkov A, Cheingsong-Popov R, Salminen M, et al.: Complex mosaic structure of the partial envelope sequence from a Gambian HIV type 1 isolate. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:169-171.
41. Leitner T: Genetic subtypes of HIV-1. In Human Retroviruses and AIDS 1996. Edited by Myers G, Korber B, Folev B, Jeang D-T, Mellors JW, Wain-Hobson S. Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory, Theoretical Biology and Biophysics; 1996.
42. Robertson DL, Hahn BH, Sharp PM: Recombination in AIDS viruses. Mol Evol 1995, 40:249-259.
43. Salminen MO, Carr JK, Robertson DL, et al.: Evolution and probable transmission of intersubtype recombinant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in a Zambian couple. J Virol 1997, 71:2647-2655.
44. Kaleebo P: Relationship between clinical outcome and viral sequences. Presented at the Workshop on HIV-1 Subtypes: Implications for Epidemiology, Pathogenicity, Vaccines and Diagnostics. Dar es Salaam, June 1997.
45. Travers K, M'Boup S, Marlink R, et al.: Natural protection against HIV-1 infection provided by HIV-2. Science 1995, 268:1612-1615.
46. Janssens W, Heyndrickx L, Alary M, et al.: Genetic variability of HIV-1 in Benin and evidence of a HIV-1 group O-group M dual infection. XI International Conference on AIDS. Vancouver, July 1996 [abstract IuA2085].
47. Zhang J, Temin HM: Retrovirus recombination depends on the length of sequence identity and is not error prone. J Virol 1994, 68:2409-2414.
48. Alaeus A, Leitner T, Lidman K, Albert J: Most HIV-1 genetic subtypes have entered Sweden. AIDS 1997, 11:199-202.
49. Arnold C, Barlow KL, Parry JV, Clewley JP: At least five HIV-1 sequence subtypes (A, B, C, D, A/E) occur in England. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1995, 11:427-429.
50. Engelstad M: Genetic diversity of env V3 loop sequences in HIV type 1-infected homosexuals, heterosexuals, intravenous drug users, and hemophilia patients in Norway: high prevalence of subtype B and detection of subtype C. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:1733-1738.
51. Lukashov VV, Kuiken CL, Boer K, Goudsmit J: HIV type 1 subtypes in The Netherlands circulating among women originating from AIDS endemic regions. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:951-953.
52. Foley BT, Blouin JC, Guzman FA: Global variation in the HIV-1 V3 region. In Human Retroviruses and AIDS 1996. Edited by Myers G, Korber B, Foley B, Jeang D-T, Mellors JW, Wain-Hobson S. Los Alamos: Los Alamos National Laboratory, Theoretical Biology and Biophysics; 1996.
53. Quinn TC: Global burden of the HIV pandemic. Lancet 1996, 348:99-106.
54. van Harmelen J, Wood R, Lambrick M, Rybicki FP, Williamson A-L, Williamson C: An association between HIV-1 subtypes and mode of transmission in Cape Town, South Africa. AIDS 1997, 11:81-87.
55. Lukashov VV, Cornelissen, MTE, Goudsmit J, et al.: Simultaneous introduction of distinct HIV-1 subtypes into different risk groups in Russia, Byelorussia and Lithuania. AIDS 1995, 9:435-439.
56. Kuiken CL, Goudsmit J: Silent mutation pattern in V3 sequences distinguishes virus according to risk group in europe. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:319-320.
57. Lukashov VV, Kuiken CL, Vlahov D, Coutinho RA, Goudsmit J: Evidence for HIV type 1 strains of US intravenous drug users as founders of AIDS epidemic among intravenous drug users in northern europe. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:1179-1183.
58. Delwart EL, Shpaer EG, Louwagie J, et al.: Genetic relationships determined by a DNA heteroduplex mobility assay: analysis of HIV-1 env genes. Sciences 1993, 262:1257-1261.
59. Mullins J: HMA: utility and limitations. Presented at the Workshop on HIV-1 Subtypes: Implications for Epidemiology, Pathogenicity, Vaccines and Diagnostics. Dar es Salaam, June 1997.
60. Bachmann MH, Delwart EL, Shpaer EG, et al.: Rapid genetic characterization of HIV type 1 strains from four World Health Organization-sponsored vaccine evaluation sites using a heteroduplex mobility assay. WHO Network for HIV Isolation and Characterization. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:1345-1353.
61. Lasky M, Perret J-L, Peeters M, et al.: Presence of multiple non-B subtypes and divergent subtype B strains of HIV-1 in individuals infected after overseas deployment. AIDS 1997, 11:43-51.
62. Bobkov AF, Pokrovskii VV, Selimova LM, et al.: Genotyping and phylogenetic analysis of HIV-1 isolates circulating in Russia. Vopr Virusol 1997, 42:13-16.
63. Bobkov A, Cheingsong-Popov R, Selimova L, et al.: Genetic heterogeneity of HIV type 1 in Russia: identification of H variants and relationship with epidemiological data. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:1687-1690.
64. Wasi C, Herring B, Raktham S, et al.: Determination of HIV-1 subtypes in injecting drug users in Bangkok, Thailand, using peptide-binding enzyme immunoassay and heteroduplex mobility assay: evidence of increasing infection with HIV-1 subtype E. AIDS 1995, 9:843-851.
65. Buonaguro L, Del Giadio F, Monaco M, et al.: Heteroduplex mobility assay and phylogenetic analysis of V3 region sequences of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates from Gulu, northern Uganda. J Virol 1995, 69:7971-7981.
66. Peeters M, M'Boup S, Delaport E: Experience with genetic subtyping in different African countries. Presented at the Workshop on HIV-1 Subtypes: Implications for Epidemiology, Pathogenicity, Vaccines and Diagnostics. Dar es Salaam, June 1997.
67. Gaywee J, Artenstein AW, VanCott JC, et al.: Correlation of genetic and serologic approaches to HIV-1 subtyping in Thailand. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1996, 13:392-396.
68. Delwart E, Pan H, Sheppard H, et al.: Slower evolution of HIV-1 quasispecies during progression to AIDS. J Virol 1997, 71:7498-7508.
69. Bhattacharyya D, Brooks BR, Callahan L: Positioning of positively charged residues in the V3 loop correlates with HIV type 1 syncytium-inducing phenotype. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:83-90.
70. de Jong JJ, de Ronde A, Keulen W, Lersmette M, Goudsmit J: Minimal requirements for the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 domain to support the syncytium-inducing phenotype: analysis by single amino acid substitution. J Virol 1992, 66:6777-6780.
71. de Wolf L, Hogervorst E, Goudsmit J, et al.: Syncytium inducing (SI) and non-syncytium inducing (NSI capacity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) subtypes other than B: phenotypic and genotypic characteristics. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:1387-1400.
72. Zhong P, Peeters M, Janssens W, et al.: Correlation between genetic and biological properties of biologically cloned HIV type 1 viruses representing subtypes A, B, and D. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1995, 11:239-248.
73. Cocchi F, DiVico AL, Garzino-Demo A, Cara A, Gallo RC, Lusso P: The V3 domain of the HIV-1 gp120 envelope glycoprotein is critical for chemokine-mediated blockage of infection. Nature Med 1996, 270:1811-1813.
74. Goudsmit J, Debouck C, Meloen RH, et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 neutralization epitope with conserved architecture elicits early type-specific antibodies in experimentally infected chimpanzees. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988, 85:4478-4482.
75. Palker IJ, Clark MF, Langlois AJ, et al.: Type-specific neutralization of the human immunodeficiency virus with antibodies to env-encoded synthetic peptides. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988, 85:1932-1936.
76. Rusche JR, Javaherian K, McDanal C, et al.: Antibodies that inhibit fusion of human immunodeficiency virus-infected cells bind a 24-amino acid sequence of the viral envelope, gp120. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1988, 85:3198-3202.
77. Moore JP, Cao Y, Leu J, Korber IQB, Ho DD: Neutralization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: the genetic subtypes do not correspond to neutralization serotypes but partially correspond to gp120 antigenic serotypes. J Virol 1995, 232:427-444.
78. D'Scouza P, Livnat D, Bradac JA, Bridges SH, the AIDS Clinical Trials Group Antibody Selection Working Group and Collaborating Investigators: Evaluation of monoclonal antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 primary isolates by neutralization assays: performance criteria for selecting candidate antibodies for clinical trials. J Infect Dis 1997, 175:1056-1062.
79. Cheingsong-Popov R, Lister S, Callow D, Kaleebu P, Beddows S, Weber J: Serotyping HIV type 1 by antibody binding to the V3 loop: relationship to viral genotype. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:1379-1386.
80. Moore JP, Cao Y, Leu J, Qin L, Korber B, Ho DD: Inter- and intra-subtype neutralization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: the genetic subtypes do not correspond to neutralization serotypes but partially correspond to gp120 antigenic serotypes. J Virol 1995, 70:427-444.
81. Barin F, Lahbabi Y, Buzelay L, et al.: Diversity of antibody binding to V3 peptides representing consensus sequences of HIV type 1 genotypes A to E: an approach for HIV type 1 serological subtyping. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:1279-1289.
82. Hoelscher M, Hanker S, Barin F, et al.: HIV-1 V3 serotyping in Tanzanian samples: probable reasons for mismatching with genetic subtyping. AIDS Res Hum Retrovirus 1998, 14 (in press).
83. Gehring S, Maayan S, Ruppach H, et al.: Molecular epidemiology of HIV in Israel. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1997, 15:296-303.
84. Simon L, Loussert-Ajaka I, Damond F, Saragosti S, Barin F, Brun-Vezinet F: HIV type 1 diversity in northern Paris, France. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:1427-1433.
85. Wolinsky S, Korber B, Neumann A, et al.: Adaptive evolution of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 during the natural course of infection. Science 1996, 277:537-542.
86. Ganeshan S, Dickover R, Korber B, Bryson Y, Wolinsky S: Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 genetic evolution over time in children with different rates of development of disease. J Virol 1997, 71:663-667.
87. Lukashov VV, Kuiken CL, Goudsmit J: Intrahost human immunodeficiency virus type 1 evolution is related to length of the immunocompetent period. J Virol 1995, 69:6911-6916.
88. Halapi E, Leitner J, Jansson M, et al.: Correlation between HIV sequence evolution, specific immune response and clinical outcome in vertically infected infants. AIDS 1997, 11:1709-1717.
89. Yoshimura FG, Learn KDGH, Riddell S, Corey L: Intrapatient sequence variation of the gag gene of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 plasma virions. J Virol 1996, 70:8879-8887.
90. Phillips RL, Rowland-Jones S, Nixon DF, et al.: Human immunodeficiency virus genetic variation that can escape cytotoxic T-cell recognition. Nature 1991, 354:453-459.
91. Nowak MA, Max RM, Phillips RE, et al.: Antigenic oscillations and shifting immunodominance in HIV-1 infections. Nature 1995, 375:606-611.
92. Price DA, Goulder PJR, Klenerman P, et al.: Positive selection of HIV-1 cytotoxic T-lymphocyte escape variants during primary infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997, 94:1890-1895.
93. Borrow P, Lewicki H, Wei N, et al.: Anti-viral pressure exerted by HIV-1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) during primary infection demonstrated by rapid selection of CTL escape virus. Nature Med 1997, 3:205-211.
94. Goulder PJR, Phillips RE, Colbert RA, et al. Late escape from an immunodominant cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response associated with progression to AIDS. Nature Med 1997, 3:212-217.
95. Arendrup M, Nielsen C, Hansen JF, et al.: Autologous HIV-1 neutralizing antibodies: emergence of neutralization-resistant escape virus and subsequent development of escape virus neutralizing antibodies. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:303-307.
96. Bongertz V, Costa CI, Santos VG, et al.: Correlation between susceptibility of primary HIV-1 isolates to autologous and heterologous neutralizing antibodies. AIDS 1997, 11:969-975.
97. Watkins BA, Buge S, Aldrich K, et al.: Resistance of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 to neutralization by natural antisera occurs through single amino acid substitutions that cause changes in antibody binding at multiple sites. J Virol 1996, 70:8431-8437.
98. Siiko DA, Ehrlich GD: Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of a neutralization-resistant breakthrough population of HIV-1. Virology 199, 218:238-242.
99. Diaz RS, Sabino FC, Mayer A, Moslev JW, Busch MP: Dual human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection and recombination in a dually exposed transfusion recipient. The Transfusion Safety Study Group. J Virol 1993, 69:3273-3281.
100. Zhu L, Wang N, Carr A, Wolinsky S, Ho DD: Evidence for coinfection by multiple strains of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype B in an acute seroconvertor. J Virol 1995, 69:1324-1327.
101. Marlink R, Kanki P, Thior I, et al.: Reduced rate of disease development after HIV-2 infection as compared to HIV-1. Science 1994, 265:1587-1590.
102. Myers G, Lenroot R: HIV glycosylation and what does it portend? AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1992, 8:1459-1460.
103. Wills C, Myers G, Larmer A: Rapid sequon evolution in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 relative to human immunodeficiency virus type 2. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:1383-1384.
104. Wolinsky SM, Wike CM, Korber B, et al.: Selective transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 variants from mothers to infants. Science 1992, 255:1134-1137.
105. Asjo B, Morfeldt-Manson L, Albert J, et al.: Replicative capacity of human immunodeficiency virus from patients with varying severity of HIV infection. Lancet 1986, ii:660-662.
106. Evans IA, McHugh TM, Slites DP, Levy JA: Differential ability of human immunodeficiency virus isolates to productively infect human cells. J Immunol 1987, 3415-3418.
107. Cheng-Mayer C, Seto D, Lateno M, Levy JA: Biologic features of HIV-1 that correlate with virulence in the host. Science 1988, 240:80-82.
108. Tersmette M, deGoede REY, Bert JM, et al.: Differential syncytium-inducing capacity of human immunodeficiency virus isolates: frequent detection of syncytium-inducing isolates in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and AIDS-related complex. J Virol 1988, 62:2026-2032.
109. Fenvo FM, Morfeldt-Manson L, Chiodi F, et al.: Distinct replicative and cytopathic characteristics of human immunodeficiency virus isolate. J Virol 1988, 62:4414-4419.
110. Tersmette M, Gruters RA, de Wolf F, et al.: Evidence for a role of virulent human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) variants in the pathogenesis of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: studies on sequential HIV isolates. J Virol 1989, 63:2118-2125.
111. Koot M, Vos AH, Keet RPM, et al.: HIV-1 biological phenotype in long-term infected individuals evaluated with an MT-2 cocultivation assay. AIDS 1992, 6:49-54.
112. Karlsson A, Parsmyr K, Aperia K, Sandstrom F, Tenyo FM, Albert J: MT-2 cell tropism of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates as a marker for response to treatment and development of drug resistance. J Infect Dis 1994, 170:1367-1375.
113. Scarlatti G, Hodara V, Rossi P, et al.: Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) from mother-to-child correlates with viral phenotype. Virology 1993, 197:624-629.
114. Valentin A, Albert J, Tenyo FM, Asjo B: Dual tropism for macrophages and lymphocytes is a common feature of primary HIV-1 and HIV-2 isolates. J Virol 1994, 68:6684-6689.
115. Stent G, Joo GB, Kierulf P, Asjo B: Macrophage tropism: fact or fiction? J Leukoc Biol 1997, 62:4-11.
116. Todd BJ, Kedar P, Pope JH: Syncytium induction in primary CD4+ T-cell lines from normal donors by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 isolates with non-syncytium-inducing genotype and phenotype in MT-2 cells. J Virol 1995, 69:7099-7105.
117. Tanaka Y, Koyanagi Y, Tanaka R, et al.: Productive and lytic infection of human CD4+ type 1 helper T cells with macrophage-tropic human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 1997, 71:465-470.
118. Bjorndal A, Deng H, Jansson M, et al.: Co-receptor usage of primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 varies according to biological phenotype. J Virol 1997, 71:7478-7487.
119. Miedema F, Meyaard L, Koot M, et al.: Changing virus-host interactions in the course of HIV-1 infection. Immunol Rev 1994, 140:35-72.
120. Rubsamen-Waigmann H, von Briesen H, Holmes H, et al.: Standard conditions of virus isolation reveal biological variability of HIV type 1 in different regions of the world. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 11:1401-1408.
121. Tersmette M, de Goede RFY, de Wolf F, et al.: Clonal analysis of changes in biological phenotype of sequential HIV isolates from seroconverting and seropositive individuals. J Cell Biochem 1990 (suppl 14D):170.
122. Schuitemaker H, Koot M, Kootstra NA, et al.: Biological phenotype of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 clones at different stages of infection: progression of disease is associated with a shift from monocytotropic to T-cell tropic virus populations. J Virol 1992, 66:1354-1360.
123. Cornelissen M, Mulder-Campinga G, Veenstra J, et al.: Syncytium-inducing (SI) phenotype suppression at seroconversion after intramuscular inoculation of a non-syncytium-inducing SI phenotypically mixed human immunodeficiency virus population. J Virol 1995, 69:1810-1818.
124. Fenyo EM: HIV biological phenotype varies with severity of infection across HIV-1 genetic subtypes. In Development and Applications of Vaccines and Gene therapy in AIDS. Basel: Karger; 1996:49-55.
125. Choe H, Farzan M, Sun Y, et al.: The β-chemokine receptors CCR3 and CCR5 facilitate infection by primary HIV-1 isolates. Cell 1996, 85:1135-1148.
126. Deng H, Liu R, Ellmeier W, et al.: Identification of a major coreceptor for primary isolates of HIV-1. Nature 1996, 381:661-666.
127. Zhang L, Huang Y, He T, Cao Y, Ho DD: HIV-1 subtype and second-receptor use [letter]. Nature 1996, 383:768.
128. Ischerning C, Alaeus A, Fredriksson R, et al.: Differences in chemokine coreceptor usage between genetic subtypes of HIV-1. Virology 1997 (in press).
129. Heredia A, Vallejo A, Soriano V, Epstein JS, Hewlett IK: Chemokine receptors and HIV-2 [letter]. AIDS 1997, 11:1198-1199.
130. Huang Y, Paxton WA, Wolinsky SM, et al.: The role of a mutant CCR5 allele in HIV-1 transmission and disease progression. Nature Med 1996, 2:1240-1243.
131. Biti R, French R, Young J, Bennetts B, Stewart G, Liang I: HIV-1 infection in an individual homozygous for the CCR5 deletion allele. Nature Med 1997, 3:252-253.
132. O'Brien IR, Winkler C, Dean M, et al.: HIV-1 infection in a man homozygous for CCR5 delta 32 [letter]. Lancet 1997, 349:1219.
133. Theodorou I, Meyer L, Magierowska M, Katlama C, Rouzioux C: HIV-1 infection in an individual homozygous for CCR5 delta 32. Lancet 1997, 349:1219-1220.
134. Fouchier RA, Groenink M, Kootstra NA, et al.: Phenotype-associated sequence variation in the third variable domain of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120 molecule. J Virol 1992, 66:3183-3187.
135. Shioda F, Oka S, Nagai Y: In vivo sequence changes of HIV-1 envelope V2 and V3 loops. Leukemia 1997, 11:131-133.
136. Groenink M, Fouchier RAM, Broersen S, et al.: Relation of phenotype evolution of HIV-1 to envelope V2 configuration. Science 1993, 260:1513-1516.
137. Wang W, Essex M, Lee IH: Uncommon gp120 cysteine residues found in primary HIV-1 isolates. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1995, 11:185-188.
138. Myers G, Korber B: The future of HIV. In Evolutionary Biology of Viruses. Edited by Morse SS. New York: Raven Press: 1994:211-232.
139. Albert J, Stalhandske P, Marquina S, et al.: Biological phenotype of HIV type 2 isolates correlates with V3 genotype. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:821-828.
140. de Jong J, Simon F, van der Groen G, et al.: V3 loop sequence analysis of seven HIV type 1 group O isolates phenotyped in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and MT-2 cells. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:1503-1507.
141. Soto-Ramirez LE, Renjifo B, McLane MF, et al.: HIV-1 Langerhans' cell tropism associated with heterosexual transmission of HIV. Science 1996, 271:1291-1293.
142. Essex M, Soto-Ramirez LE, Renjifo B, Wang Wk, Lee I: Genetic variation within human immunodeficiency viruses generates rapid changes in tropism, virulence, and transmission. Leukemia 1997, 11:93-94.
143. Kunanusont C, Foy HM, Kreiss JK, et al.: HIV-1 subtypes and male-to-female transmission in Thailand. Lancet 1995, 343:1078-1083.
144. Dittmar MT, Simmons G, Hibbitts S, et al.: Langerhans cell tropism of HIV-1 subtype A through F isolates derived from different transmission groups. J Virol 1997, 71:8008-8013.
145. Pope M, Frankel SS, Mascola JR, et al.: HIV-1 strains from subtypes B and E replicate in cutaneous dendritic cell-T cell mixtures without displaying subtype-specific tropism. J Virol 1997, 71:8001-8007.
146. Braaten D, Franke EK, Luban J: Cyclophilin A is required for the replication of the group M human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and simian immunodeficiency virus SIVcpzGAB but not group O HIV-1 or other primate immunodeficiency viruses. J Virol 1996, 70:4420-4427.
147. Descamps D, Collin G, Loussert-Ajaka I, Saragosti S, Simon F, Brun-Vezinel F: HIV-1 group O sensitivity to antiretroviral drugs [letter]. AIDS 1995, 9:977-978.
148. Korber BTM, MacInnes K, Smith R, Myers G: Mutational trends in V3 loop protein sequences observed in different genetic lineages of human immunodeficiency virus type-1. J Virol 1994, 68:6730-6744.
149. Kuiken C, Foley B, Guzman E, Korber B: Determinants of HIV-1 protein evolution. In Molecular Evolution of HIV. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press: 1997 (in press).
150. Kirchhoff F, Greenough TC, Hamacher M, Sullivan JL, Desrosiers RC: Activity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 promoter/TAR regions and tat1 genes derived from individuals with different rates of disease progression. Virology 1997, 232:319-331.
151. Klein MR, van Baalen CA, Holwerda AM, et al.: Kinetics of Gag-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses during the clinical course of HIV-1 infection: a longitudinal analysis of rapid progressors and long-term asymptomatics. J Exp Med 1995, 181:1365-1372.
152. Pontesilli O, Klein MR, Kerkhof-Garde SR, et al.: Kinetics of immune functions and virus replication during HIV-1 infection. Immunol Lett 1997, 57:125-130.
153. Harrer I, Harrer F, Kalams SA, et al.: Strong cytotoxic T cell and weak neutralizing antibody responses in a subset of persons with stable nonprogressing HIV type 1 infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:583-592.
154. Rowland-Jones SL, Sutton I, Ariyoshi K, et al.: HIV-specific cytotoxic T-cells in HIV-exposed but uninfected Gambian women. Nature Med 1995, 1:59-64.
155. Pinto LA, Sullivan J, Berzotsky JA, et al.: Env-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses in HIV seronegative health care workers occupationally exposed to HIV-contaminated body fluids. J Clin Invest 1995, 96:867-876.
156. Koup RM, Safrit, JL, Cao Y, et al.: Temporal association of cellular immune responses with the initial control of viremia in primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 syndrome. J Virol 1994, 68:4650-4655.
157. Borrow P, Lewicki H, Hahn BH, Shaw GM, Oldstone MB: Virus-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity associated with control of viremia in primary human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Virol 1994, 68:6103-6110.
158. Ferrari G, Humphrey W, McIlrath MJ, et al.: Clade B-based HIV-1 vaccines elicit cross-clade cytotoxic T lymphocyte reactivities in uninfected volunteers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997, 94:1396-1401.
159. Cao H, Kanki P, Sankale JL, Korber B, M'Boup S, Walker BD: CTL cross-reactivity among different HIV-1 clades: implications for vaccine development. J Virol 1997, 71:8615-8623.
160. Korber B: HIV variability and CTL epitopes. Presented at the Workshop on HIV-1 Subtypes: Implications for Epidemiology, Pathogenicity, Vaccines and Diagnostics. Dar es Salaam, June 1997.
161. Ariyoshi K, Harwood F, Chiengsong-Popov R, Weber JR: Is clearance of HIV-1 viraemia at seroconversion mediated by neutralising antibodies? Lancet 1992, 340:1257-1258.
162. Moore JP, Cao Y, Ho DD, Koup RA: Development of the anti-gp120 antibody response during seroconversion to human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 1994, 68:5142-5155.
163. Girard M, van der Rvst E, Barre-Sinoussi F, et al.: Challenge of chimpanzees immunized with a recombinant canarypox-HIV-1 virus. Virology 1997, 232:98-104.
164. Parren PWHL, Ditzel HJ, Gulizia RJ, et al.: Protection against HIV-1 infection in hu-PBL-SCID mice by passive immunization with a neutralizing human monoclonal antibody against the gp120 CD4-binding site. AIDS 1995, 9:11-16.
165. Stahl-Hennig C, Coulibaly C, Petry H, et al.: Immunization with virion-derived glycoprotein 130 from HIV-2 or SIV protects macaques against challenge virus grown in human or simian cells or prepared ex vivo. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10 (suppl 2):S27-S32.
166. Lewis MG, Elkins WR, McCutchan FE, et al.: Passively transferred antibodies directed against conserved regions of SIV envelope protect macaques from SIV infection. Vaccine 1993, 11:1347-1355.
167. Letvin NL, Montefiori DC, Yasutomi Y, et al.: Potent, protective anti-HIV immune responses generated by bimodal HIV envelope DNA plus protein vaccination. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997, 94:9378-9383.
168. Kostrikis IG, Cao Y, Ngai H, Moore JP, Ho DD: Quantitative analysis of serum neutralization of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from subtypes A, B, C, D, E, F, and I: lack of direct correlation between neutralization serotypes and genetic subtypes and evidence for prevalent serum-dependent infectivity enhancement. J Virol 1996, 70:445-458.
169. Nyambi PN, Nkengasong J, Lewi P, et al.: Multivariate analysis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 neutralization data. J Virol 1996, 70:6235-6243.
170. Weber J, Fenyo FM, Beddows S, Kaleebu P, Bjorndal A, the WHO Network for HIV: Neutralisation serotypes of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 field isolates are not predicted by genetic subtype. J Virol 1997, 70:7827-7832.
171. Mascola JR, Louwagie J, McCutchan FF, et al.: Two antigenically distinct subtypes of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: viral genotype predicts neutralization serotype. J Infect Dis 1994, 169:48-54.
172. Poignard P, Klasse PJ, Sattentau QJ: Antibody neutralization of HIV-1. Immunol Today 1996, 17:239-246.
173. Sattentau QJ: Neutralization of HIV-1 by antibody. Curr Opin Immunol 1996, 8:540-545.
174. Moore JP, Ho DD: HIV-1 neutralization: the consequences of viral adaptation to growth on transformed T cells. AIDS 1995, 9 (suppl A):S117-S136.
175. Button DR, Barbas CP, Persson MA, Koenig S, Chanock RM, Lerner RA: A large array of human monoclonal antibodies to type 1 human immunodeficiency
176. Buchacher A, Predl R, Lauer C, et al.: Human monoclonal antibodies against gp41 and gp120 as potential agents for passive immunization. Vaccines 1992, 92:191-195.
177. Buchacher A, Predl R, Strutzenberger K, et al.: Generation of human monoclonal antibodies against HIV-1 proteins: electrofusion and Epstein-Barr virus transformation for peripheral blood lymphocyte immortalization. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:359-369.
178. Irkola A, Dragic I, Arthos J, et al.: CD4-dependent, antibody-sensitive interactions between HIV-1 and its co-receptor CCR-5. Nature 1996, 384:184-187.
179. Irkola A, Pomales AB, Yuan H, et al.: Cross-clade neutralization of primary isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by human monoclonal antibodies and tetrameric CD4-IgG. J Virol 1995, 69:6609-6617.
180. Kessler II JA, McKenna PM, Emini FA, Conlev AJ: In vitro assessment of the therapeutic potential of anti-HIV-1 monoclonal neutralizing antibodies. General Meeting of the American Society of Microbiology 1995, 95:586, 1-25.
181. Burton DR, Pyati J, Koduri R, et al.: Efficient neutralization of primary isolates of HIV-1 by a recombinant human monoclonal antibody. Science 1994, 266:1024-1027.
182. Moore JP, McCutchan FE, Poon SW, Mascola J, Liu J, Cao Y, Ho DD: Exploration of antigenic variation in gp120 from clades A through F of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by using monoclonal antibodies. J Virol 1994, 68:8350-8364.
183. Irkola A, Purtscher M, Muster J, et al.: Human monoclonal antibody 2G12 defines a distinctive neutralization epitope on the gp120 glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 1996, 70:1100-1108.
184. Moore JP, Cao Y, Qing L, et al.: Primary isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type I are relatively resistant to neutralization by monoclonal antibodies to gp120, and their neutralization is not predicted by studies with monomeric gp120. J Virol 1995, 69:101-109.
185. Sattentau QJ, Moore JP: Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 neutralization is determined by epitope exposure on the gp120 oligomer. J Exp Med 1995, 182:185-196.
186. Neurath AR, Strick N, Lin K, Jiang S: Multifaceted consequences of anti-gp41 monoclonal antibody 2F5 binding to HIV type 1 virions. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1995, 11:687-696.
187. Mellors JW, Rinaldo CR Jr, Gupta P, White RM, Todd JA, Kingsley LA: Prognosis in HIV-1 infection predicted by the quantity of virus in plasma. Science 1996, 272:1167-1170.
188. O'Brien IR, Blattner WA, Waters D, et al.: Serum HIV-1 RNA levels and time to development of AIDS in the Multicenter Hemophilia Cohort Study. JAMA 1996, 276:105-110.
189. b/l. AIDS 1997, 11:53-57.
190. Butlo S, Argentini C, Mazzella AM, et al.: Dual infection with different strains of the same HIV-1 subtype. AIDS 1997, 11:694-696.
191. Berger IA, Doms RW, Lenyo E-M, et al.: HIV-1 phenotypes classified by coreceptor usage. Nature 1997 (in press).
192. Wu L, Gerard NP, Wyatt R, et al.: CD4-induced interaction of primary HIV-1 gp120 glycoproteins with the chemokine receptor CCR-5. Nature 1996, 384:179-183.
193. Coste J, Montes B, Reynes J, et al.: Comparative evaluation of three assays for the quantitation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 RNA in plasma. Med Virol 1996, 50:293-302.
194. Petrov RV, Khaitov RM, Sidorovich IG, et al.: The use of synthetic peptides in the diagnosis of HIV infections. Biomed Sci 1990, 1:239-244.
195. Abede A, Kuiken C, Goudsmit J, et al.: HIV-1 subtype C in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Presented at the Workshop on HIV-1 Subtypes: Implications for Epidemiology, Pathogenicity, Vaccines and Diagnostics. Dar es Salaam, June 1997.
196. Abimiku AG, Stern IL, Zwandor A, et al.: Subgroup G HIV type 1 isolates from Nigeria. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:1581-1583.
197. Albert J, Franzen L, Jansson M, et al.: Ugandan HIV-1 V3 loop sequences closely related to the US/European consensus. J Virol 1992, 190:674-681.
198. Becker MLB, de Jager G, Becker WB: Analysis of partial gag and env gene sequences of HIV type 1 strains from Southern Africa. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1995, 11:1265-1267.
199. Bruce C, Clegg C, Featherstone A, et al.: Presence of multiple genetic subtypes of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 proviruses in Uganda. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:1543-1550.
200. Delaporte E, Janssens W, Peeters M, et al.: Epidemiological and molecular characteristics of HIV infection in Gabon, 1986-1994. AIDS 1996, 10:903-910.
201. Ellenberger D, Lou C, Pieniazek D, et al.: Analysis of genetic diversity of HIV-1 in Côte d'Ivoire using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. XI International Conference on AIDS. Vancouver, July 1996 [abstract IuA20651].
202. Engelbrecht S, Laten JD, Smith T, van Rensburg EJ: Identification of env subtypes in fourteen HIV type 1 isolates from South Africa. AIDS Res. Hum Retroviruses 1995, 11:1269-1271.
203. Heyndrickx L, Alary M, Janssens W, Davo N, van der Groen G: HIV-1 group O and group M dual infection in Bénin. Lancet 1996, 347:907-903.
204. Howard TM, Rasheed S: Genomic structure and nucleotide sequence analysis of a new HIV type 1 subtype A strain from Nigeria. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:1413-1425.
205. Ishikawa K, Janssens W, Brandtul J, et al.: Genetic and phylogenetic analysis of HIV type 1 env subtypes in Ghana, West Africa. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:1575-1578.
206. Janssens W, Heyndrickx L, Fransen K, et al.: Genetic and phylogenetic analysis of env subtypes G and H in Central Africa. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:877-879.
207. Janssens W, Heyndrickx L, Fransen K, et al.: Genetic variability of HIV type 1 in Kenya. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:1577-1579.
208. Janssens W, Heyndrickx L, Van de Peer V, et al.: Molecular phylogeny of part of the env gene of HIV-1 strains isolated in Cote d'Ivoire. AIDS 1994, 8:21-26.
209. Janssens W, Buvé A, Nkengasong JN: The puzzle of HIV-1 subtypes in Africa. AIDS 1997, 11:705-712.
210. Katzenstein D, Winter M, Chiu T, et al.: HIV-1 isolates from Zimbabwe biologic and molecular characterization of recent clade C isolates from seroconversion samples. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1997, 94:1396-1401.
211. McCutchan FE, Ungar BLP, Hegerich P, et al.: Genetic analysis of HIV-1 isolates from Zambia and an expanded phylogenetic tree for HIV-1. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1992, 5:2441-2442.
212. MRC AIDS Virus Research Unit: Genetic subtyping of HIV-1 in Gauteng using a heteroduplex mobility assay. In National Institute for Virology, 1995 Vol 20. Johannesburg: Department of Health, National Institute for Virology; 1995.
213. Murphy E, Korber B, Georges-Courbot M, et al.: Diversity of V3 region sequences of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from the Central African Republic. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1993, 9:997-1106.
214. Nkengasong JN, Janssens W, Heyndrickx L, et al.: Genotypic subtypes in HIV-1 in Cameroon. AIDS 1994, 8:1405-1412.
215. Oram JD, Downing RG, Roff M, et al.: Sequence analysis of the V3 loop of the env genes of Ugandan human immunodeficiency proviruses. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1991, 7:605-614.
216. Orloff GM, Kalish ML, Chiphangwi J et al.: V3 loops of HIV-1 specimens from pregnant women in Malawi uniformly lack a potential N-linked glycosylation site. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1993, 9:705-706.
217. Osmanov S, Belsey L, Heyward W, et al.: HIV-1 variation in WHO-sponsored vaccine evaluations sites: genetic screening, sequence analysis and preliminary biological characterization of selected viral strains. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:1327-1344.
218. Positives M, Gosnik J, Thomas E, et al.: Phylogenetic evaluation of Kenyan HIV type 1 isolates. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1997, 13:493-499.
219. Potts KE, Kalish ML, Bandea CI, et al.: Genetic diversity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 strains in Kinshasa, Zaire. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1993, 9:613-618.
220. Rayfield M, Biryahwaho B, Hu D, et al.: The molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 in Uganda. XI International Conference on AIDS Vancouver, July 1996 [abstract TuC224].
221. Shafer RW, Eisen JA, Merigan IC, Katzenstein DA: Sequence and drug susceptibility of subtype C reverse transcriptase from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 seroconverters in Zimbabwe. J Virol 1997, 71:5441-5448.
222. Smith JD, Bruce CB, Featherstone AS, et al.: Reactions of Ugandan antisera with peptides encoded by V3 loop epitopes of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1994, 10:577-583.
223. Wieland U, Seelhoff A, Hofman A, et al.: Diversity of the vif gene of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in Uganda. J Gen Virol 1997, 78:393-400.
224. Wieslaw S, Schwinn A, Baczko K, et al.: vpu and env sequence variability of HIV-1 isolates from Tanzania. AIDS Res Hum Retrovirus 1994, 10:1753-1754.
225. Williamson C, Engelbrecht S, Lambrick M, et. al.: HIV-1 subtypes in different risk groups in South Africa [letter]. Lancet 1995, 346:782.
226. Williamson C, van Harmelen J, van der Ryst E, et al.: Geographical distribution of HIV-1 subtypes in South Africa. Presented at the Workshop on HIV-1 Subtypes: Implications for Epidemiology, Pathogenicity, Vaccines and Diagnostics. Dar es Salaam, June 1997.
227. Zachar V, Goustin AS, Zacharova V, et al.: Genetic polymorphism of envelope V3 region of HIV type 1 subtypes A, C, and D from Nairobi, Kenya. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1996, 12:75-78.
228. Zwart G, Wolfs, TFW, Bookelman R, et al.: Greater diversity of the HIV-1 V3 neutralization domain in Tanzania compared with The Netherlands. AIDS 1993, 7:467-474.