Cognitive biases among individuals with social anxiety

The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Social Anxiety Disorder

Volumn , Issue , 2014, Pages 321-343

  Steinman, Shari A ^a   Gorlin, Eugenia I ^a   Teachman, Bethany A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Attention; Cognitive bias; Implicit associations; Interpretation; Judgment; Memory; Post event processing; Social anxiety

Indexed keywords

EID: 85104374333     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781118653920.ch15     Document Type: Chapter

References (120)

1. Abbott, M. J., & Rapee, R. M. (2004). Post-event rumination and negative self-appraisal in social phobia before and after treatment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(1), 136-144. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.113.1.136
2. Alden, L. E., Taylor, C. T., Mellings, T. M. J. B., & Laposa, J. M. (2008). Social anxiety and the interpretation of positive social events. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 577-590. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.05.007
3. Amir, N., Beard, C., & Bower, E. (2005). Interpretation bias and social anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29(4), 433-443. doi:10.1007/s10608-005-2834-5
4. Amir, N., Beard, C., Taylor, C. T., Klumpp, H., Elias, J., Burns, M., & Chen, X. (2009). Attention training in individuals with generalized social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(5), 961-973. doi:10.1037/a0016685
5. Amir, N., Coles, M. E., Brigidi, B., & Foa, E. B. (2001). The effect of practice on recall of emotional information in individuals with generalized social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 713-720. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.110.1.76
6. Amir, N., Elias, J., Klumpp, H., & Przeworski, A. (2003). Attentional bias to threat in social phobia: Facilitated processing of threat or difficulty disengaging attention from threat?. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(11), 1325-1335. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00039-1
7. Amir, N., Foa, E. B., & Coles, M. E. (1998). Negative interpretation bias in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 945-957. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00060-6
8. Amir, N., Freshman, M., & Foa, E. (2002). Enhanced Stroop interference for threat in social phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16, 1-9. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(01)00084-6
9. Amir, N., McNally, R. J., Riemann, B. C., Burns, J., Lorenz, M., & Mullen, J. T. (1996). Suppression of the emotional Stroop effect by increased anxiety in patients with social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(11-12), 945-948. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(96)00054-X
10. Amir, N., & Taylor, C. T. (2012). Interpretation training in individuals with generalized social anxiety disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80(3), 497-511. doi:10.1037/a0026928
11. Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamin, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 1-24. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1
12. Beard, C., & Amir, N. (2008). A multi-session interpretation modification program: Changes in interpretation and social anxiety symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 1135-1141. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.05.012
13. Beck, A. T., & Clark, D. A. (1997). An information processing model of anxiety: Automatic and strategic processes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(1), 49-58. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(96)00069-1
14. Beck, A. T., Emery, G., & Greenberg, R. I. (1985). Anxiety disorders and phobias. New York, NY: Basic Books.
15. Brozovich, F., & Heimberg, R. G. (2008). An analysis of post-event processing in social anxiety disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(6), 891-903. doi:10.1016/j.cpr. 2008.01.002
16. Buckner, J. D., Maner, J. K., & Schmidt, N. B. (2010). Difficulty disengaging attention from social threat in social anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34(1), 99-105. doi:10.1007/s10608-008-9205-y
17. Byrne, A., & Eysenck, M. W. (1995). Trait anxiety, anxious mood, and threat detection. Cognition and Emotion, 9, 549-562. doi:10.1080/02699939508408982
18. Campbell, D. W., Sareen, J., Stein, M. B., Kravetsky, L. B., Paulus, M. P., Hassard, S. T., & Reiss, J. P. (2009). Happy but not so approachable: The social judgments of individuals with generalized social phobia. Depression and Anxiety, 26, 419-424. doi:10.1002/da.20474
19. Chen, Y. P., Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., & Mansell, W. (2002). Patients with generalized social phobia direct their attention away from faces. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40(6), 677-687. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00086-9
20. Clark, D. M., & Wells, A. (1995). A cognitive model of social phobia. In R. G. Heimberg, M. R. Liebowitz, D. A. Hope, & F. R. Schneier (Eds.), Social phobia: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (pp. 69-93). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
21. Clark, J. V., & Arkowitz, H. (1975). Social anxiety and self-evaluation of interpersonal performance. Psychological Reports, 36, 211-221.
22. Clerkin, E. M., & Teachman, B. A. (2010). Training implicit social anxiety associations: An experimental intervention. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 300-308. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.01.001
23. Cody, M. W., & Teachman, B. A. (2010). Post-event processing and memory bias for performance feedback in social anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 468-479. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.03.003
24. Cody, M. W., & Teachman, B. A. (2011). Global and local evaluations of public speaking performance in social anxiety. Behavior Therapy, 42(4), 601-611. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2011.01.004
25. Coles, M. E., & Heimberg, R. G. (2002). Memory biases in the anxiety disorders: Current status. Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 587-627. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(01)00113-1
26. Constans, J. I., Penn, D. L., Ihen, G. H., & Hope, D. A. (1999). Interpretive biases for ambiguous stimuli in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 643-651. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00180-6
27. Cougle, J. R., Smits, J. A. J., Lee, H. J., Powers, M. B., & Telch, M. J. (2005). Singular and combined effects of thought suppression and anxiety induction on frequency of threatening thoughts: An experimental investigation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 29, 525-539. doi:10.1007/s10608-005-2793-x
28. Dannahy, L., & Stopa, L. (2007). Post-event processing in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1207-1219. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.08.017
29. de Hullu, E., de Jong, P. J., Sportel, B. E., & Nauta, M. H. (2011). Threat-related automatic associations in socially anxious adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49, 518-522. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2011.05.008
30. de Jong, P. J. (2002). Implicit self-esteem and social anxiety: Differential self-favouring effects in high and low anxious individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 501-508. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00022-5
31. de Jong, P. J., Pasman, W., Kindt, M., & van den Hout, M. A. (2001). A reaction time paradigm to assess (implicit) complaint-specific dysfunctional beliefs. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 101-113. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00180-1
32. Dimberg, U., & Öhman, A. (1996). Behold the wrath: Psychophysiological responses to facial stimuli. Motivation and Emotion, 20(2), 149-182. doi:10.1007/BF02253869
33. Eastwood, J. D., Smilek, D., Oakman, J. M., Farvolden, P., van Ameringen, M., Mancini, C., & Merikle, P. M. (2005). Individuals with social phobia are biased to become aware of negative faces. Visual Cognition, 12(1), 159-179. doi:10.1080/13506280444000175
34. Edwards, S. L., Rapee, R. M., & Franklin, J. A. (2003). Postevent rumination and recall bias for a social performance event in high and low socially anxious individuals. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27(6), 603-617. doi:10.1023/A:1026395526858
35. Foa, E. B., Franklin, M. E., Perry, K. J., & Herbert, J. D. (1996). Cognitive biases in generalized social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105(3), 433-439. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.105.3.433
36. Gamer, J., Schmukle, S. C., Luka-Krausgrill, U., & Egloff, B. (2008). Examining the dynamics of the implicit and the explicit self-concept in social anxiety: Changes in the Implicit Association Test-anxiety and the social phobia anxiety inventory following treatment. Journal of Personality Assessment, 90(5), 476-480. doi:10.1080/00223890802248786
37. Gilboa-Schechtman, E., Foa, E., Vaknin, Y., Marom, S., & Hermesh, H. (2008). Interpersonal sensitivity and response bias in social phobia and depression: Labeling emotional expressions. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32, 605-618. doi:10.1007/s10608-008-9208-8
38. Gilboa-Schechtman, E., Foa, E. B., & Amir, N. (1999). Attentional biases for facial expressions in social phobia: The face-in-the-crowd paradigm. Cognition and Emotion, 13(3), 305-318. doi:10.1080/026999399379294
39. Glashouwer, K. A., de Jong, P. J., Dijk, C., & Buwalda, F. M. (2011). Individuals with fear of blushing explicitly and automatically associating blushing with social costs. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 540-546. doi:10.1007/s10862-011-9241-x
40. Glashouwer, K. A., de Jong, P. J., & Penninx, B. W. (2011). Predictive validity of automatic self-associations for the onset of anxiety disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120(3), 607-616. doi:10.1037/a0023205
41. Glashouwer, K. A., Vroling, M. S., de Jong, P. J., Lange, W.-G., & de Keijser, A. (2012). Low implicit self-esteem and dysfunctional automatic associations in social anxiety disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 44(2):262-270. doi: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2012.11.005
42. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464-1480. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
43. Harvey, A. G., Clark, D. M., Ehlers, A., & Rapee, R. M. (2000). Social anxiety and self impression: Cognitive preparation enhances the beneficial effects of video feedback following a stressful social task. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38(12), 1183-1192. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00148-5
44. Heimberg, R. G., Brozovich, F. A., & Rapee, R. M. (2010). A cognitive-behavioral model of social anxiety disorder: Update and extension. In S. G. Hofmann & P. M. DiBartolo (Eds.), Social anxiety: Clinical, developmental, and social perspectives (pp. 395-422). New York, NY: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-375096-9.00028-6
45. Helfinstein, S. M., White, L. K., Bar-Haim, Y., & Fox, N. A. (2008). Affective primes suppress attention bias to threat in socially anxious individuals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 799-810. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.03.011
46. Hirsch, C. R., Clark, D. M., & Mathews, A. (2006). Imagery and interpretations in social phobia: Support for the combined cognitive biases hypothesis. Behavior Therapy, 37(3), 223-236. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.02.001
47. Hirsch, C. R., & Mathews, A. (2000). Impaired positive inferential bias in social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(4), 705-712. doi:10.1037//002I-843X.109.4.705
48. Hirsch, C. R., Meynen, T., & Clark, D. M. (2004). Negative self-imagery in social anxiety contaminates social interactions. Memory, 12(4), 496-506. doi:10.1080/09658210444000106
49. Hope, D. A., Rapee, R. M., Heimberg, R. G., & Dombeck, M. J. (1990). Representations of the self in social phobia: Vulnerability to social threat. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(2), 177-189. doi:10.1007/BF01176208
50. Horley, K., Williams, L. M., Gonsalvez, C., & Gordon, E. (2003). Social phobics do not see eye to eye: A visual scanpath study of emotional expression processing. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17, 33-44. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(02)00180-9
51. Joorman, J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2006). Is this happiness I see? Biases in the identification of emotional facial expressions in depression and social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115(4), 705-714. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.4.705
52. Kanai, Y., Sasagawa, S., Chen, J., Shimada, H., & Sakano, Y. (2010). Interpretation bias for ambiguous social behavior among individuals with high and low levels of social anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34, 229-240. doi:10.1007/s10608-009-9273-7
53. Kanai, Y., Sasagawa, S., Chen, J., Suzuki, S., Shimada, H., & Sakano, Y. (2009). Negative interpretation of bodily sensations in social anxiety. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 2(3), 292-307. doi:10.1521/ijct.2009.2.3.292
54. Kashdan, T. B., Weeks, J. W., & Savostyanova, A. A. (2011). Whether, how, and when social anxiety shapes positive experiences and events: A self-regulatory framework and treatment implications. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(5), 786-799. doi:10.1016/j.cpr. 2011.03.012
55. Kim, H.-Y., Lundh, L.-G., & Harvey, A. (2002). The enhancement of video feedback by cognitive preparation in the treatment of social anxiety. A single-session experiment. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 33, 19-37. doi:10.1016/S0005-7916(02)00010-1
56. Kingsep, P., & Page, A. (2010). Attempted suppression of social threat thoughts: Differential effects for social phobia and healthy controls? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48(7), 653-660. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.03.018
57. LeMoult, J., & Joormann, J. (2012). Attention and memory biases in social anxiety disorder: The role of comorbid depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36, 47-57. doi:10.1007/s10608-010-9322-2
58. Li, S., Tan, J., Qian, M., & Liu, X. (2008). Continual training of attentional bias in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46(8), 905-912. doi:10.1016/j.brat. 2008.04.005
59. Liang, C.-W., Hsu, W.-Y., Hung, F.-C., Wang, W.-T., & Lin, C.-H. (2011). Absence of a positive bias in social anxiety: The application of a directed forgetting paradigm. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42, 204-210. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.12.0 02
60. Lundh, L.-G., & Öst, L.-G. (1996). Stroop interference, self-focus and perfectionism in social phobics. Personality and Individual Differences, 20(6), 725-731. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(96)00008-6
61. Lundh, L.-G., & Öst, L.-G. (2001). Attentional bias, self-consciousness and perfectionism in social phobia before and after cognitive behavioral therapy. Scandinavian Journal of Behavior Therapy, 30(1), 4-16. doi:10.1080/028457101300140428
62. Lundh, L.-G., & Sperling, M. (2002). Social anxiety and the post-event processing of socially distressing events. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 31(3), 129-134. doi:10.1080/165060702320338004
63. MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (2012). Cognitive bias modification approaches to anxiety. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8, 189-217. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143052
64. MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15-20. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.95.1.15
65. Makkar, S. R., & Grisham, J. R. (2011). Social anxiety and the effects of negative self-imagery on emotion, cognition, and post-event processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(10), 654-664. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2011.07.004
66. Mansell, W., Clark, D. M., Ehlers, A., & Chen, Y.-P. (1999). Social anxiety and attention away from emotional faces. Cognition and Emotion, 13(6), 673-690. doi:10.1080/026999399379032
67. Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (2005). Cognitive vulnerability to emotional disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1(1), 167-195. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy. 1.102803.143916
68. Mattia, J. I., Heimberg, R. G., & Hope, D. A. (1993). The revised Stroop color-naming task in social phobics. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31(3), 305-313. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(93)90029-T
69. McNally, R. J. (1995). Automaticity and the anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(7), 747-754. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(95)00015-P
70. Mellings, T. M. B., & Alden, L. E. (2000). Cognitive processes in social anxiety: The effects of self-focus, rumination and anticipatory processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 243-257. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00040-6
71. Mitte, K. (2008). Memory bias for threatening information in anxiety and anxiety disorders: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 134(6), 886-911. doi:10.1037/a0013343
72. Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (1998). A cognitive-motivational analysis of anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36(9), 809-848. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00063-1
73. Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2002). Selective orienting of attention to masked threat faces in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1403-1414. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(02)00017-7
74. Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (2004). A cognitive-motivational perspective on the processing of threat information and anxiety. In J. Yiend (Ed.), Cognition, emotion and psychopathology (pp. 68-85). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511521263.005
75. Mogg, K., Philippot, P., & Bradley, B. P. (2004). Selective attention to angry faces in clinical social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(1), 160-165. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.113.1.160
76. Mohlman, J., Carmin, C. N., & Price, R. B. (2007). Jumping to interpretations: Social anxiety disorder and the identification of emotional facial expressions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 591-599. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.03.007
77. Morgan, J. (2010). Autobiographical memory biases in social anxiety. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 288-297. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.12.003
78. Morgan, J., & Banerjee, R. (2008). Post-event processing and autobiographical memory in social anxiety: The influence of negative feedback and rumination. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 1190-1204. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.01.001
79. Moser, J. S., Huppert, J. D., Foa, E. B., & Simons, R. F. (2012). Interpretation of ambiguous social scenarios in social phobia and depression: Evidence from event-related brain potentials. Biological Psychology, 89, 387-397. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.12.001
80. Mueller, E. M., Hofmann, S. G., Santesso, D. L., Meuret, A. E., Bitran, S., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2009). Electrophysiological evidence of attentional biases in social anxiety disorder. Psychological Medicine, 39(7), 1141-1152. doi:10.1017/S0033291708004820
81. Murphy, R., Hirsch, C. R., Mathews, A., Smith, K., & Clark, D. M. (2007). Facilitating a benign interpretation bias in a high socially anxious population. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1517-1529. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.01.007
82. Musa, C. Z., & Lépine, J. P. (2000). Cognitive aspects of social phobia: A review of theories and experimental research. European Psychiatry, 15(1), 59-66. doi:10.1016/S0924-9338(00)00210-8
83. Nilsson, J.-E., Lundh, L.-G., Faghihi, S., & Roth-Andersson, G. (2011). The enhancement of beneficial effects following audio feedback by cognitive preparation in the treatment of social anxiety: A single-session experiment. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 42, 497-503. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.05.004
84. Öhman, A., Lundqvist, D., & Esteves, F. (2001). The face in the crowd revisited: A threat advantage with schematic stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(3), 381-396. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.381
85. Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2001). Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review, 108(3), 483-522. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.483
86. Ononaiye, M. S. P., Turpin, G., & Reidy, J. G. (2007). Attentional bias in social anxiety: Manipulation of stimulus duration and social-evaluative anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31(6), 727-740. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9096-8
87. Parra, C., Esteves, F., Flykt, A., & Öhman, A. (1997). Pavlovian conditioning to social stimuli: Backward masking and the dissociation of implicit and explicit cognitive processes. European Psychologist, 2(2), 106-117. doi:10.1027/1016-9040.2.2.106
88. Perowne, S., & Mansell, W. (2002). Social anxiety, self-focused attention, and the discrimination of negative, neutral and positive audience members by their non-verbal behaviours. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 30, 11-23. doi:10.1017/S1352465802001030
89. Pishyar, R., Harris, L. M., & Menzies, R. G. (2004). Attentional bias for words and faces in social anxiety. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 17(1), 23-36. doi:10.1080/10615800310001601458
90. Putman, P., Hermans, E., & van Honk, J. (2004). Emotional Stroop performance for masked angry faces: It’s BAS, not BIS. Emotion, 4(3), 305-311. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.4.3.305
91. Rachman, S., Grüter-Andrew, J., & Shafran, R. (2000). Post-event processing in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 611-617. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00089-3
92. Rapee, R. M., & Heimberg, R. G. (1997). A cognitive-behavioral model of anxiety in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35(8), 741-756. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00022-3
93. Rapee, R. M., & Lim, L. (1992). Discrepancy between self- and observer ratings of performance in social phobics. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101(4), 728-731. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.101.4.728
94. Rinck, M., & Becker, E. S. (2007). Approach and avoidance in fear of spiders. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 38(2), 105-120. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2006.10.001
95. Roth, D., Antony, M. M., & Swinson, R. P. (2001). Interpretations for anxiety symptoms in social phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 129-138. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00159-X
96. Sasaki, S., Iwanaga, M., Kanai, Y., & Seiwa, H. (2010). Implicit and explicit associations in the fear structure of social anxiety. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 110(1), 19-32. doi:10.2466/PMS.110.1.19-32
97. Schmidt, N. B., Richey, J. A., Buckner, J. D., & Timpano, K. R. (2009). Attention training for generalized social anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(1), 5-14. doi:10.1037/a0013643
98. Schmukle, S. C., & Egloff, B. (2004). Does the Implicit Association Test for assessing anxiety measure trait and state variance? European Journal of Personality, 18, 483-494. doi:10.1002/per.525
99. Schofield, C. A., Johnson, A. L., Inhoff, A. W., & Coles, M. E. (2012). Social anxiety and difficulty disengaging threat: Evidence from eye-tracking. Cognition and Emotion, 26(2), 300-311. doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.602050
100. Stevens, S., Gerlach, A. L., & Rist, F. (2008). Effects of alcohol on ratings of emotional facial expressions in social phobics. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 940-948. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.09.007
101. Stevens, S., Rist, F., & Gerlach, A. L. (2009). Influence of alcohol on the processing of emotional facial expressions in individuals with social phobia. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 48(2), 125-140. doi:10.1348/014466508×368856
102. Stopa, L., & Clark, D. M. (2000). Social phobia and interpretation of social events. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 273-283. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00043-1
103. Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643-662. doi:10.1037/h0054651
104. Tanner, R. J., Stopa, L., & De Houwer, J. (2006). Implicit views of the self in social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1397-1409. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.10.007
105. Teachman, B. A., & Allen, J. P. (2007). Development of social anxiety: Social interaction predictors of implicit and explicit fear of negative evaluation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35, 63-78. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9084-1
106. Teachman, B. A., & Clerkin, E. M. (2013). The interactive model of anxious processing: A transdiagnostic framework integrating automatic and strategic cognitive processing biases. Manuscript submitted for publication.
107. Teachman, B. A., Joormann, J., Steinman, S. A., & Gotlib, I. H. (2012). Automaticity in anxiety disorders and major depressive disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 575-603. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.004
108. Teachman, B. A., Stefanucci, J. K., Clerkin, E. M., Cody, M. W., & Proffitt, D. R. (2008). A new mode of fear expression: Perceptual bias in height fear. Emotion, 8(2), 296-301. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.2.296
109. Tran, T., Hertel, P. T., & Joormann, J. (2011). Cognitive bias modification: Induced interpretive biases affect memory. Emotion, 11, 145-152. doi:10.1037/a0021754
110. van Peer, J. M., Spinhoven, P., & Roelofs, K. (2010). Psychophysiological evidence for cortisolinduced reduction in early bias for implicit social threat in social phobia. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35(1), 21-32. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.09.012
111. Vassilopoulos, S. P. (2006). Interpretation of judgmental biases in socially anxious and nonanxious individuals. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 34, 243-254. doi:10.1017/S1352465805002687
112. Vassilopoulos, S. P. (2008). Coping strategies and anticipatory processing in high and low socially anxious individuals. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 98-107. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(99)00089-3
113. Vassilopoulos, S. P. (2011). Interpretation bias for facial expressions in high and low socially anxious individuals: Effects of stimulus duration. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 8, 44-65.
114. Voncken, M. J., & Bögels, S. M. (2006). Changing interpretation and judgmental bias in social phobia: A pilot study of a short, highly structured cognitive treatment. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 20(1), 59-73. doi:10.1891/jcop.20.1.59
115. Weeks, J. W., Heimberg, R. G., Rodebaugh, T. L., Goldin, P. R., & Gross, J. (2012). Psychometric evaluation of the Fear of Positive Evaluation Scale (FPES) in patients with social anxiety disorder. Psychological Assessment, 24, 301-312.
116. Westberg, P., Lundh, L.-G., & Jönsson, P. (2007). Implicit associations and social anxiety. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 36(1), 43-51. doi:10.1080/08037060601020401
117. Wigboldus, D. H. J., Holland, R. W., & van Knippenberg, A. (2005). Single target implicit associations. Unpublished manuscript.
118. Williams, J. M. G., Watts, F. N., MacLeod, C., & Mathews, A. (1997). Cognitive psychology and emotional disorders (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
119. Wilson, J. K., & Rapee, R. M. (2005). The interpretation of negative social events in social phobia: Changes during treatment and relationship to outcome. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 373-389. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.02.006
120. Yoon, K. L., & Zinbarg, R. E. (2007). Threat is in the eye of the beholder: Social anxiety and the interpretation of ambiguous facial expressions. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 839-847. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.05.004