Therapeutics, evidence and decision-making

Therapeutics, Evidence and Decision-Making

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 1-256

  Rawlins, Michael D ^a  

^a Natl Inst for Clinical Excellence   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85059294725     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (147)

1. Mulrow CD. The medical review. Annals of Internal Medicine 1987;106:465-488.
2. Higgins JPT, Green S. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
3. Centre for Reviews and Dissemination. Systematic Reviews: CRD's Guidance for Undertaking Reviews in Health Care. York: University of York, 2009.
4. Mulrow CD. Systematic reviews: rationale for systematic reviews. BMJ 1994;309:597-9.
5. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Journal of Epidemiology 2009;62:1006-12.
6. Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, et al. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate healthcare interventions: explanation and elaboration. BMJ 2009;339:b2700.
7. Jadad AR, Moore RA, Carroll D, et al. Assessing the quality of reports of randomized clinical trials: is blinding necessary? Controlled Clinical Trials 1996;17:1-12.
8. Jüni P, Wtshi A, Bloch R, Egger M. The hazards of scoring the quality of clinical trials for meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association 1999;282:1054-60.
9. Hartling L, Ospina M, Liang Y, et al. Risk of bias quality assessment of randomised controlled trials: cross sectional study. BMJ 2009;339:b4012.
10. Aguilar MI, Hart R. Oral anticoagulants for preventing stroke in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation and no previous history of stroke or transient ischemic attacks. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005;3:CD001927.
11. Sterne JAC, Egger M, Moher D. Addressing reporting biases. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (eds). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
12. Glenny AM, Altman DG, Song F, et al. Indirect comparisons of competing effects. Health Technology Assessment 2005;9:1-134.
13. Bucher HC, Guyatt GH, Griffith LE, Walter SD. The results of direct and indirect treatment comparisons in meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 1997;50:683-91.
14. Caldwell DM, Ades AE, Higgins JPT. Simultaneous comparisons of multiple treatments: combining direct and indirect evidence. BMJ 2005;331:897-900.
15. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Vist GE, et al. Interpreting results and drawing conclusions. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (eds). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
16. Ernst E, Pittler MH. Assessment of therapeutic safety in systematic reviews: literature review. BMJ 2001;323:546.
17. McIntosh HM, Woolacott NF, Bagnall A-M. Assessing harmful effects in systematic reviews. BMC Medical Research Methodology 2004;4:19.
18. Loke YK, Price D, Herxheimer A. Systematic reviews of adverse effects: framework for a structured approach. BMC Medical Research Methodology 2007;7:32.
19. Golder S, McIntosh HM, Duffy S, Glanville J. Developing efficient search strategies to identify reports of adverse effects in MEDLINE and EMBASE. Health Information and Libraries Journal 2006;23:3-12.
20. Aronson JK (ed.). Meyler's Side Effects of Drugs: The International Encyclopaedia of Adverse Reactions and Interactions, 15th edn. Edinburgh: Elsevier, 2006.
21. Loke YK, Price D, Herxheimer A. Adverse effects. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (eds). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
22. Loke YK, Derry S, Aronson JK. A comparison of three different sources of data in assessing the frequencies of adverse drug reactions to amiodarone. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2004;57:616-21.
23. Speigelhalter DJ, Myles JP, Jones DR, Abrams KR. Bayesian methods in health technology assessments: a review. Health Technology Assessment 2000;4:1-130.
24. Papanikolaou PN, Christidi GD, Ioannidis JPA. Comparison of evidence of harms of medical interventions in randomized and nonrandomized studies. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2006;174:635-41.
25. Antithrombotic Trialists Collaboration. Aspirin in the primary and secondary prevention of vascular disease: collaborative meta-analysis of individual participant data from randomised trials. Lancet 2009;373:1849-60.
26. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet 1996;347:1713-27.
27. Lewis SC, Langman MJS, Laporte J-R, et al. Dose-response relationships between individual nonaspirin nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NANSAIDs) and serious upper gastrointestinal bleeding: a meta-analysis based on individual patient data. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2001;54:320-26.
28. Tugwell P, Knottnerus JA. Advantages of individual patient data analysis in systematic reviews. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2010;63:233-4.
29. Ritter JM. Uncertain risks of drug related harms, the precautionary principle and limitations of meta-analysis. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2009;68:647-50.
30. Loke YK, Derry S. Reporting of adverse drug reactions in randomised controlled trials: a systematic survey. BMC Clinical Pharmacology 2001;1:3.
31. Ioannidis JP, Lau J. Completeness of safety reporting in randomized trials: an evaluation of 7 medical areas. Journal of the American Association 2001;285:437-43.
32. Miller J, Chan BKS, Nelson H. Hormone Replacement Therapy and Risk of Venous Thromboembolism. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2002.
33. Cochrane A. Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections of Health Services. London: Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, 1972.
34. Jüni P, Altman DG, Egger M. Assessing the quality of clinical trials. BMJ 2001;323:42-6.
35. Rothwell PM. External validity of randomised controlled trials: 'to whom do the benefits apply?' Lancet 2005;365:82-93.
36. Dekkers OM, von Elm E, Algra A, et al. How to assess the external validity of therapeutic trials: a conceptual approach. International Journal of Epidemiology 2010;39:89-94.
37. Tariot PN, Cummings JL, Katz IR, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of donepezil in patients with Alzheimer's disease in the nursing home setting. Journal of the American Geriatric Society 2001;49:1590-99.
38. AD2000 Collaborative Group. Long-term donepezil treatment in 565 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD2000): randomised double-blind trial. Lancet 2004;363:2105-15.
39. Heiat A, Gross CP, Krumholz HM. Representation of the elderly, women, and minorities in heart failure clinical trials. Archives of Internal Medicine 2002;162:1682-8.
40. Bartlett C, Doyal L, Ebrahim S, et al. The causes and effects of socio-demographic exclusions from clinical trials. Health Technology Assessment 2005;9:1-152.
41. Dhruva SS, Redberg RF. Variations between clinical trial participants and Medicare beneficiaries in evidence used for Medicare national coverage decisions. Archives of Internal Medicine 2008;168:136-40.
42. Liberopoulos G, Trikalinos NA, Ioannidis JPA. The elderly were under-represented in osteoarthritis trials. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2009;62:1218-23.
43. Evans A, Kalra L. Are the results of randomized controlled trials on anticoagulation in patients with atrial fibrillation generalizable to clinical practice? Archives of Internal Medicine 2001;161:1443-7.
44. Materson BJ, Reda DJ, Cushman WC, et al. Single-drug therapy for hypertension in men: a comparison of six anti-hypertensive agents with placebo. New England Journal of Medicine 1993;328:914-21.
45. CAST (Chinese Acute Stroke Trial) Collaborative Group. CAST: randomized placebocontrolled trial of early aspirin use in 20,000 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet 1997;349:1641-9.
46. International Stroke Trial Collaborative Group. The International Stroke Trial (IST): a randomised trial of aspirin, subcutaneous heparin, both, or neither among 19,435 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet 1997:349:1569-81.
47. McDowell SE, Coleman JJ, Ferner RE. Systematic review and meta-analysis of ethnic differences in risks of adverse reactions to drugs used in cardiovascular medicine. BMJ 2006;332:1177-81.
48. Wood AJJ. Racial differences in the response to drugs: pointers to genetic differences. New England Journal of Medicine 2001;344:1393-6.
49. Collins F. The Language of Life: DNA and the Revolution in Personalized Medicine. London: Profile Books, 2010.
50. Hoffman C, Rice D, Sung H-Y. Persons with chronic conditions: their prevalence and costs. Journal of the American Medical Association 1996;276:1473-9.
51. Travers J, Marsh S, Williams M, et al. External validity of randomised controlled trials in asthma: to whom do the results of the trials apply? Thorax 2007;62:219-23.
52. Rothwell PM, Guldsrein LB. Carotid endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid stenosis. Stroke 2004;35:2425-7.
53. Weiner MG, Xie D, Tannen RL. Replication of the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study using a primary care medical record database prompted exploration of a new method to address unmeasured confounding. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 2008;17:661-70.
54. Tannen RL, Weiner MG, Xie D. Replicated studies of two randomized trials of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors: further empiric validation of the 'prior event ratio' to adjust for unmeasured confounding by indication. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 2008;17:671-85.
55. Altman DG, Schulz KF, Moher D, et al. for the CONSORT Group. The revised CONSORT statement for reporting randomized trials: explanation and elaboration. Annals of Internal Medicine 2001;134:663-94.
56. Hoffman JR. Rethinking case reports. Western Journal of Medicine 1999;170:253-4.
57. McBride WG. Thalidomide and congenital abnormalities. Lancet 1961;ii:1358.
58. Wright P. Untoward effects associated with practolol administration: oculomucocutaneous syndrome. BMJ 1975;i:595-8.
59. Vandenbroucke JP. In defense of case reports and case series. Annals of Internal Medicine 2001;134:330-34.
60. Murray GM. Note on the treatment of myxoedema by hypodermic injections of the thyroid gland of a sheep. BMJ 1891;ii:796-7.
61. Glasziou P, Chalmers I, Rawlins M, McCulloch P. When are randomised trials unnecessary? Picking signal from noise. BMJ 2007;334:349-51.
62. Botma M, Bader R, Kubba H. A parent's kiss: evaluating an unusual method for removing nasal foreign bodies in children. Journal of Laryngology and Otology 2000;114:598-600.
63. Bates TR, Keenher T, O'Reilly LC, et al. Extensive cutaneous Mycobacterium abscessus infection due to contaminated insulin delivery system. Quarterly Journal of Medicine 2009;102:881-4.
64. Venning GR. Validation of anecdotal reports of suspected adverse drug reaction: the problem of false alarms. BMJ 1982;284:249-52.
65. Loke YK, Price D, Derry S, Aronson JK. Case reports of suspected adverse drug reactions: systematic literature follow-up. BMJ 2006;332:335-9.
66. Rawlins MD. Spontaneous reporting of adverse drug reactions. I: uses. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1988;26:8-13.
67. Rawlins MD. Pharmacovigilance: paradise lost, regained or postponed? Journal of the Royal College of Physicians 1995;29:41-9.
68. Davies S, King B, Raine JM. Spontaneous reporting: UK. In: Mann RD, Andrews EB (eds). Pharmacovigilance, 2nd edn. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
69. Coulter DM, Edwards IR. Cough associated with captopril and enalapril. BMJ 1987;294:1521-3.
70. Bateman DN, Rawlins MD, Simpson JM. Extrapyramidal reactions with metoclopramide. BMJ 1985;291:930-32.
71. Wood SM, Mann RD, Rawlins MD. Angio-oedema and urticaria associated with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. BMJ 1987;294:91-2.
72. Wysowski DK, Swartz L. Adverse drug event surveillance and drug withdrawals in the US, 1969-2002. Archives of Internal Medicine 2005;165:1363-72.
73. Rawlins MD. Spontaneous reporting of adverse drug reactions. I: the data. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1988;26:1-7.
74. Evans SJW, Waller PC, Davis S. Use of proportional reporting ratios (PPRs) for signal generation from spontaneous adverse drug reaction reports. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 2001;10:483-6.
75. Deshpande G, Gogolak V, Smith SW. Data mining in drug safety: review of published threshold criteria for defining signals of disproportionate reporting. Pharmaceutical Medicine 2010;24:37-43.
76. Bate A, Lundqvist M, Edwards IR, et al. A Bayesian neural network method for adverse reaction signal generation. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 1998;54:315-21.
77. DuMouchel W. Bayesian data mining in large frequency tables, with an application to the FDA spontaneous reporting system. American Statistician 1999;53:177-90.
78. Whitaker HJ, Farrington CP, Spiessens B, Musonda P. Tutorial in biostatistics: the selfcontrolled case series method. Statistics in Medicine 2006;25:1768-97.
79. Farrington CP, Nash J, Miller E. Case series analysis of adverse reactions to vaccines. American Journal of Epidemiology 1996;143:1165.
80. Platt R, Wislo M, Chan A, et al. The new sentinel network: improving the evidence for medical product safety. New England Journal of Medicine 2009;361:645-7.
81. Ashcroft RE, Chadwick DW, Clark SRL, et al. Implications of socio-cultural context for the ethics of clinical trials. Health Technology Assessment 1997;1:1-165.
82. De Sallis I, Tomlin Z, Toerin M, Donovan J. Qualitative research to improve RCT recruitment: issues arising in establishing research collaborations. Contemporary Clinical Trials 2008;29:663-70.
83. Shah JY, Phadtare A, Rajgor D, et al. What leads Indians to participate in clinical trials? A meta-analysis of qualitative studies. PLoS ONE 2010;5:e10730.
84. McCann SK, Campbell MK, Entwistle V. Reasons for participating in randomized controlled trials: conditional altruism and considerations for self. Trials 2010;11:31-41.
85. National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment Programme. The ProtecT trial: evaluating the effectiveness of treatments for clinically localised prostate cancer. www.hta.ac.uk/project/1230.asp.
86. Donovan J, Mills N, Smith M, et al. Improving the design and conduct of randomized controlled trials by embedding them in qualitative research: ProtecT (prostate testing for cancer and treatment) study. BMJ 2002;325:766-9.
87. Koops L, Lindley RI. Thrombolysis for acute ischaemic stroke: consumer involvement in the design of new randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2002;325:415-19.
88. Edwards S, Braunholtz D. Can unequal be more fair? A response to Andrew Avins. Journal of Medical Ethics 2000;26:179-82.
89. Donovan JL, Peters TJ, Neal DE, et al. A randomized trial comparing transurethral resection of the prostate, laser therapy and conservative treatment in men with symptomatic benign prostatic enlargement: the CLasP study. Journal of Urology 2000;164:65-70.
90. Marshall NJ, Wilson G, Lapworth K, Kay LJ. Patients' perceptions of treatment with anti-THF therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology 2004;43:1034-8.
91. Edwards J. An exploration of patients' experiences of anti-TNF therapy. Musculoskeletal Care 2004;2:40-50.
92. Sanderson T, Morris M, Calnan M, et al. What pharmacological outcomes are important to people with rheumatoid arthritis? Creating the basis of a patient core set. Arthritis Care Research 2010;62:640-46.
93. Roberts KA, Dixon-Woods M, Abrams KR, Jones DR. Factors affecting the uptake of childhood immunization: a Bayesian synthesis of qualitative and quantitative evidence. Lancet 2002;360:1596-9.
94. Treloar C, Rhodes T. The lived experience of hepatitis C and its treatment among injecting drug users: qualitative synthesis. Qualitative Health Research 2009;19:1321-34.
95. Munro SA, Lewin SA, Smith HJ, et al. Patient adherence to tuberculosis treatment: a systematic review of qualitative research. PLoS Medicine 2007;4:e238.
96. Rawlins MD, Culyer AJ. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence and its value judgements. BMJ 2004;329:224-6.
97. Rawlins MD. Pharmacopolitics and deliberative democracy. Clinical Medicine 2005;5:471-5.
98. Chambers R. Involving Patients and the Public. Abingdon: Radcliffe Press, 2000.
99. Coote A, Lenaghan J. Citizens Juries: Theory into Practice. London: Institute for Policy Research, 1997.
100. Rawlins M. Background to NICE's Citizens Council. In: Littlejohns P, Rawlins M (eds). Patients, the Public and Priorities in Healthcare. Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing, 2009.
101. Littlejohns P. The Citizens Council's reports. In: Littlejohns P, Rawlins M (eds). Patients, the Public and Priorities in Healthcare. Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing, 2009.
102. Littlejohns P, Rawlins M. Social value judgements: implementing the Citizens Council reports. In: Littlejohns P, Rawlins M (eds). Patients, the Public and Priorities in Healthcare. Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing, 2009.
103. Pope C, Mays N. Reaching the parts that other methods cannot reach: an introduction to qualitative methods in health and health services research. BMJ 1995;311:42-5.
104. Giacomini MK, Cook DJ. Users' guide to the medical literature: XXIII. Qualitative research in health care. A: are the results of the study valid? Journal of the American Medical Association 2000;284:357-62.
105. Noyes J, Popay J, Pearson A, et al. Qualitative research and Cochrane reviews. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (eds). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
106. Centre for Reviews and Dissemination. Systematic Reviews. York: Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, 2009.
107. Campbell M, Fitzpatrick R, Haines A, et al. Framework for design and evaluation of complex interventions to improve health. BMJ 2000;321:694-6.
108. Lewin S, Glenton C, Oxman AD. Use of qualitative methods alongside randomized controlled trials of complex healthcare interventions: methodological study. BMJ 2009;339:b3496.
109. Russell LB, Gold MR, Siegel JE, et al. The role of cost effectiveness analysis in health care and medicine. Journal of the American Medical Association 1996;276:1172.
110. CAESAR Coordinating Committee. Randomised trial of lamivudine or lamivudine plus loviride to zidovudine-containing regimens for patients with HIV-1 infection: the CAESAR trial. Lancet 1997;349:1413-21.
111. Lacey L, Mauskopf J, Lindrooth R, et al. A prospective cost-consequences analysis of adding lamivudine to zidovudine-containing antiretroviral treatment regimens for HIV infection in the US. Pharmacoeconomics 1999;15(Suppl. 1):23-37.
112. Drummond MF, Sculpher MJ, Torrance GW, et al. Methods for the Evaluation of Health Care Programmes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
113. Morris S, Devlin N, Parkin D. Economic Analysis in Health Care. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
114. Mauskopf JA, Paul JE, Grant DM, Stergachis A. The role of cost consequence analysis in healthcare decision-making. Pharmacoeconomics 1998;13:277-88.
115. Coast J. Is economic evaluation in touch with society's health values? BMJ 2004;329:1233-6.
116. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Evaluation pathway programme for medical technologies: methods guide. London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2010.
117. Chalkidou K, Culyer A, Naidoo B, Littlejohns P. Cost effective public health guidance: asking questions from the decision-maker's viewpoint. Health Economics 2008;17:441-8.
118. Rawlins MD. Risk-benefit decisions in licensing changes. In: Walker SR, Asscher AW (eds). Medicines and Risk/Benefit Decisions. Lancaster: MTP Press, 1987.
119. Fischhoff B, Lichtenstein S, Slovic P, et al. Acceptable risk. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
120. Echt DS, Liebson PR, Mitchell LB, et al. Mortality and morbidity in patients receiving encainide, flecainide or placebo: the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial. New England Journal of Medicine 1991;324:781-6.
121. Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestogen in healthy postmenopausal women. Journal of the American Medical Association 2002;288:321-33.
122. Boland A, Dundar Y, Bagust A, et al. Early thrombolysis for the treatment of acute myocardial infarction: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technology Assessment 2003;7:1-136.
123. Christensen R, Kristensen P, Bartels EM, et al. Efficacy and safety of the weight-loss drug rimonabant: a meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet 2007;370:1706-13.
124. Chavez-Tapia NC, Tellez-Avila FI, Bedogni G, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis on the adverse effects of rimonabant treatment: considerations for its potential use in hepatology. BMC Gastroenterology 2009;9:75.
125. Gelber RD, Cole BF, Gelber S, Goldhirsch A. The Q-TwiST method. In: Spilker B (ed.). Quality of Life and Pharmacoeconomics in Clinical Trials. Philadelphia, PA: Lippencott-Raven, 1996.
126. Troche CJ, Paltiel AD, Makuch RW. Evaluation of therapeutic strategies: a new method for balancing benefit and risk. Value in Health 2000;3:12-22.
127. Mussen F, Salek S, Walker S. A quantitative approach to benefit-risk assessment of medicines: part 1. The development of a new model using multi-criteria decision analysis. Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety 2007;16:S2-16.
128. Rawlins MD. Pharmacovigilance: paradise lost, regained or postponed? Journal of the Royal College of Physicians 1995;29:41-8.
129. National Prescribing Centre. More on glitazone safety: how do pioglitazone and rosiglitazone compare? MeReC Rapid Review. www.npci.org.uk/blog/?p=524.
130. Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. New England Journal of Medicine 2007;356:2457-71.
131. Lincoff AM, Wolski K, Nicholls SJ, Nissen SE. Pioglitazone and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes: meta-analysis of randomized trials. Journal of the American Medical Association 2007;298:1180-88.
132. Juurlink DN, Gomes T, Lipscombe LL, et al. Adverse cardiovascular events during treatment with pioglitazone and rosiglitazone: population based cohort study. BMJ 2009;339:b2942.
133. Graham DJ, Oullet-Hellstrom, MaCurdy TE, et al. Risk of acute myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, and death in elderly Medicare patients treated with rosiglitazone or pioglitazone. Journal of the American Medical Association 2010;304:411-18.
134. Home PD, Pocock SJ, Beck-Nielsen H, et al. Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes: an interim analysis. New England Journal of Medicine 2007;357:28-38.
135. Home PD, Pocock SJ, Beck-Nielsen H, et al. Rosiglitazone evaluated for cardiovascular outcomes in oral agent combination therapy for type 2 diabetes (RECORD): a multicentre, randomised, open-label trial. Lancet 2009;373:2125-35.
136. DeAngelis CD, Fontanarosa PB. Ensuring integrity in industry-sponsored research: primum non nocere, revisited. Journal of the American Medical Association 2010;303:1196-8.
137. European Medicines Agency. European Medicines Agency recommends suspension of Avandia, Avandamet and Avaglim. www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/ medicines/human/public_health_alerts/2010/09/human_pha_detail_000020. jsp&murl=menus/medicines/medicines.jsp&mid=&jsenabled=true.
138. US Food and Drug Administration. Briefing on Avandia. www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm227934.htm
139. Rawlins MD, Culyer AJ. National Institute for Health and Clinical Effectiveness and its social value judgements. BMJ 2004;329:224-7.
140. Rawlins MD, Barnett DB, Stevens A. Pharmacoeconomics: NICE's approach to decision-making. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2010;70:346-9.
141. Sutton A, Ades A, Abrams K, Cooper N. Briefing paper for Methods Review Workshop on Evidence Synthesis (Indirect and Mixed Treatment Comparisons). London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence, 2008.
142. Beachamp TL, Childress JF. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
143. Rawlins MD. Pharmacopolitics and deliberative democracy. Clinical Medicine 2005;5:471-5.
144. Haddorn DC. Setting health care priorities in Oregon: cost-effectiveness meets the rule of rescue. Journal of the American Medical Association 1991;265:2218-25.
145. Daniels N, Sabin JE. Setting Limits Fairly: Can We Learn to Share Medical Resources? Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
146. Guttman A, Thompson D. Democracy and Disagreement. Cambridge, MA: The Beknal Press of the Harvard University Press, 1996.
147. Dashle T, Lambrew JM, Greenberger SS. Critical: What We Can Do About the Health-Care Crisis. New York: St Martin's Press, 2008.