How Equity-Oriented Health Care Affects Health: Key Mechanisms and Implications for Primary Health Care Practice and Policy

Milbank Quarterly

Volumn 96, Issue 4, 2018, Pages 635-671

  Ford Gilboe, Marilyn ^a   Wathen, C Nadine ^a   Varcoe, Colleen ^b   Herbert, Carol ^c   Jackson, Beth E ^d,e   Lavoie, Josée G ^f   Perrin, Nancy A ^h   Smye, Victoria ^a   Wong, Sabrina T ^b   Browne, Annette J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^c WESTERN UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^d PUBLIC HEALTH AGENCY OF CANADA   (Canada)

^e CARLETON UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^f UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA   (Canada)

^g Bernie)   (Canada)

^h JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF NURSING   (United States)

Author keywords

cohort studies; health equity; models (theoretical); primary care; primary health care; quality of care; social determinants of health

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AGED; ARTICLE; FEMALE; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH CARE PRACTICE; HEALTH CARE QUALITY; HEALTH EQUITY; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; PATIENT ATTITUDE; PATIENT CARE; PRIMARY HEALTH CARE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT; QUESTIONNAIRE; SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH; UNITED STATES;

DELIVERY OF HEALTH CARE; HEALTH EQUITY; HEALTH POLICY; HUMANS; PRIMARY HEALTH CARE; QUALITY OF HEALTH CARE; SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH; SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES; UNITED STATES;

EID: 85055492608     PISSN: 0887378X     EISSN: 14680009     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1468-0009.12349     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. Whitehead M. The concepts and principles of equity and health. Int J Health Serv. 1992;22(3):429-445. https://doi.org/10.2190/986L-LHQ6-2VTE-YRRN.
2. Farmer P. Reimagining equity. In: Weigel J, ed. To Repair the World: Paul Farmer Speaks to the Next Generation. Berkeley: University of California Press; 2013. http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520275973. Accessed August 8, 2017.
3. Krieger N. Discrimination and health. Int J Health Serv. 2014;44(4):643-710. https://doi.org/10.2190/HS.44.4.b.
4. Arcaya MC, Arcaya AL, Subramanian SV. Inequalities in health: definitions, concepts, and theories. Global Health Action. 2015;8(1):27106. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v8.27106.
5. National Collaborating Center for the Determinants of Health. Economic arguments for shifting health dollars upstream: a discussion paper. Antigonish, NS: National Collaborating Center for the Determinants of Health; 2016. http://nccdh.ca/images/uploads/comments/Economic_Arguments_EN_April_28.pdf. Accessed September 9, 2017.
6. Vos T, Barber RM, Bell B, et al. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet. 2015;386(9995):743-800. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60692-4.
7. Baum FE. Health systems: how much difference can they make to health inequities? J Epidemiol Community Health. 2016;70(7):635-636. http://jech.bmj.com/content/jech/70/7/635.full.pdf. Accessed August 15, 2017.
8. Liburd LC, Giles W, Jack L. Health equity. Natl Civic Rev. 2013;102(4):52-54. https://doi.org/10.1002/ncr.21156.
9. Marmot M, Bell R. Social inequalities in health: a proper concern of epidemiology. Ann Epidemiol. 2016;26(4):238-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2016.02.003.
10. Wyatt R, Laderman M, Botwinick L, Mate K. Achieving health equity: a guide for health care organizations. Cambridge, MA: IHI White Paper; 2016. https://scholar.google.ca/scholar?cluster=10865636512668944860&hl=en&as_sdt=2005&sciodt=0,5. Accessed August 8, 2017.
11. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Focus on top incomes and taxation in OECD countries: was the crisis a game changer? Paris, France: OECD; 2014. http://www.oecd.org/social/OECD2014-FocusOnTopIncomes.pdf. Accessed August 8, 2017.
12. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. OECD Better Life Index: Canada; 2013. http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/canada/. Accessed August 8, 2017.
13. Wong WF, LaVeist TA, Sharfstein JM. Achieving health equity by design. JAMA. 2015;313(14):1417. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.2434.
14. Canadian Institute for Health Information. Trends in income-related health inequalities in Canada: technical report. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Institute for Health Information; 2017. https://secure.cihi.ca/free_products/trends_in_income_related_inequalities_in_canada_2015_en.pdf. Accessed August 8, 2017.
15. Raphael D. Poverty in Canada: Implications for Health and Quality of Life. 2nd ed. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press; 2011. https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=GMKrYpb_kMsC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Raphael+D.+Poverty+in+Canada:+Implications+for+health+and+quality+of+life.+2nd+ed.+Toronto,+Canada:+Canadian+Scholars%27+Press%3B+2011.&ots=sEqhNesnLP&sig=ZWElXadK5RNqb8LNfalSOI5LZqc. Accessed August 8, 2017.
16. Marmot M, Allen JJ. Social determinants of health equity. Am J Public Health. 2014;104(Suppl. 4). https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302200.
17. Embrett MG, Randall GE. Social determinants of health and health equity policy research: exploring the use, misuse, and nonuse of policy analysis theory. Soc Sci Med. 2014;108:147-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.03.004.
18. White F. Primary health care and public health: foundations of universal health systems. Med Principles Pract. 2015;24(2):103-116. https://doi.org/10.1159/000370197.
19. Martin MP, White MB, Hodgson JL, Lamson AL, Irons TG. Integrated primary care: a systematic review of program characteristics. Fam Syst Health. 2014;32(1):101-115. https://doi.org/10.1037/fsh0000017.
20. Richard L, Furler J, Densley K, et al. Equity of access to primary healthcare for vulnerable populations: the IMPACT international online survey of innovations. Int J Equity Health. 2016;15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-016-0351-7.
21. Newman L, Baum F, Javanparast S, O'Rourke K, Carlon L. Addressing social determinants of health inequities through settings: a rapid review. Health Promotion Int. 2015;30(Suppl. 2):ii126-ii143. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dav054.
22. World Health Organization Commission on the Social Determinants of Health. Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. 2006. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/43943/1/9789241563703_eng.pdf. Accessed September 10, 2017.
23. Canadian Institute for Health Information. Trends in income-related health inequalities in Canada: technical report. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Institute for Health Information; 2015. https://secure.cihi.ca/free_products/trends_in_income_related_inequalities_in_canada_2015_en.pdf. Accessed September 4, 2018.
24. Lebrun-Harris LA, Baggett TP, Jenkins DM, et al. Health status and health care experiences among homeless patients in federally supported health centers: findings from the 2009 patient survey. Health Serv Res. 2013;48(3):992-1017. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.12009.
25. Krieger N. Methods for the scientific study of discrimination and health: an ecosocial approach. Am J Public Health. 2012;102(5):936-944. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300544.
26. Wuest J, Merritt-Gray M, Ford-Gilboe M, Lent B, Varcoe C, Campbell J. Chronic pain in women survivors of intimate partner violence. J Pain. 2008;9(11):1049-1057. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=c8h&AN=2010118410&site=ehost-live. Accessed September 4, 2018.
27. Frenkel L, Swartz L. Chronic pain as a human rights issue: setting an agenda for preventative action. Global Health Action. 2017;10(1):1348691. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2017.1348691.
28. Eriksen AMA, Schei B, Hansen KL, Sørlie T, Fleten N, Javo C. Childhood violence and adult chronic pain among indigenous Sami and non-Sami populations in Norway: a SAMINOR 2 questionnaire study. Int J Circumpolar Health. 2016;75(1):32798. https://doi.org/10.3402/ijch.v75.32798.
29. Fuller-Thomson E, Baird SL, Dhrodia R, Brennenstuhl S. The association between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and suicide attempts in a population-based study. Child Care Health Dev. 2016;42(5):725-734. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12351.
30. Stockman JK, Hayashi H, Campbell JC. Intimate partner violence and its health impact on ethnic minority women. J Women's Health. 2015;24(1):62-79. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2014.4879.
31. Seng JS, Lopez WD, Sperlich M, Hamama L, Reed Meldrum CD. Marginalized identities, discrimination burden, and mental health: empirical exploration of an interpersonal-level approach to modeling intersectionality. Soc Sci Med. 2012;75(12):2437-2445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.09.023.
32. World Health Organization. The World Health Report 2008—Primary Health Care (Now More Than Ever). Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2008.
33. Wen CK, Hudak PL, Hwang SW. Homeless people's perceptions of welcomeness and unwelcomeness in healthcare encounters. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22(7):1011-1017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-007-0183-7.
34. Nelson SE, Wilson K. The mental health of Indigenous peoples in Canada: a critical review of research. Soc Sci Med. 2017;176:93-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.01.021.
35. Earnshaw VA, Quinn DM. The impact of stigma in healthcare on people living with chronic illnesses. J Health Psychol. 2012;17(2):157-168. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105311414952.
36. Tower M, Rowe J, Wallis M. Reconceptualising health and health care for women affected by domestic violence. Contemp Nurse. 2012;42(2):216-225. https://doi.org/10.5172/conu.2012.42.2.216.
37. Giblon R, Bauer GR. Health care availability, quality, and unmet need: a comparison of transgender and cisgender residents of Ontario, Canada. BMC Health Serv Res. 2017;17(1):283. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-017-2226-z.
38. Institute of Medicine. The Health of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People: Building a Foundation for Better Understanding. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2011. doi:10.17226/13128.
39. Allan B, Smylie J. First Peoples, Second Class Treatment: The Role of Racism in the Health and Well-Being of Indigenous Peoples in Canada. Toronto, ON: Wellesley Institute; 2015. http://www.wellesleyinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Summary-First-Peoples-Second-Class-Treatment-Final.pdf. Accessed August 8, 2017.
40. Browne AJ, Varcoe C, Lavoie J, et al. Enhancing health care equity with Indigenous populations: evidence-based strategies from an ethnographic study. BMC Health Serv Res. 2016;16(1):544. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-016-1707-9.
41. Browne AJ, Varcoe C, Ford-Gilboe M, et al. Disruption as opportunity: impacts of an organizational health equity intervention in primary care clinics. Int J Equity Health. 2018;17:154. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-018-0820-2.
42. Browne AJ, Varcoe C, Ford-Gilboe M, Wathen CN. EQUIP Healthcare: an overview of a multi-component intervention to enhance equity-oriented care in primary health care settings. Int J Equity Health. 2015;14(1):152. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-015-0271-y.
43. Ponic P, Varcoe C, Smutylo T. Trauma- (and violence-) informed approaches to supporting victims of violence: policy and practice considerations. Victims of Crime Research Digest No. 9. Ottawa, ON: Department of Justice; 2016. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070701685713.
44. Browne AJ, Varcoe CM, Wong ST, et al. Closing the health equity gap: evidence-based strategies for primary health care organizations. Int J Equity Health. 2012;11(1):59. https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-9276-11-59.
45. Mental Health Commission of Canada. Guidelines for Recovery-Oriented Practice. Ottawa, ON: Mental Health Commission of Canada; 2015. https://www.mentalhealthcommission.ca/sites/default/files/2016-07/MHCC_Recovery_Guidelines_2016_ENG.PDF. Accessed November 20, 2017.
46. Kitson A, Marshall A, Bassett K, Zeitz K. What are the core elements of patient-centred care? A narrative review and synthesis of the literature from health policy, medicine and nursing. J Adv Nurs. 2013;69(1):4-15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2012.06064.x.
47. Rathert C, Wyrwich MD, Boren SA. Patient-centered care and outcomes. Med Care Res Rev. 2013;70(4):351-379. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077558712465774.
48. Ratanawongsa N, Federowicz MA, Christmas C, et al. Effects of a focused patient-centered care curriculum on the experiences of internal medicine residents and their patients. J Gen Intern Med. 2012;27(4):473-477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-011-1881-8.
49. Mohammed K, Nolan MB, Rajjo T, et al. Creating a patient-centered health care delivery system. Am J Med Quality. 2016;31(1):12-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1062860614545124.
50. Lee Y-Y, Lin JL. Do patient autonomy preferences matter? Linking patient-centered care to patient–physician relationships and health outcomes. Soc Sci Med. 2010;71(10):1811-1818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.08.008.
51. Fredericks S, Lapum J, Hui G. Examining the effect of patient-centred care on outcomes. Br J Nurs. 2015;24(7):394-400. doi:10.12968/bjon.2015.24.7.394.
52. Stewart M, Brown JB, Donner A, et al. The impact of patient-centered care on outcomes. J Fam Pract. 2000;49(9):796-804. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11032203. Accessed September 7, 2017.
53. Beach MC, Price EG, Gary TL, et al. Cultural competence: a systematic review of health care provider educational interventions. Med Care. 2005;43(4):356-373. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.mlr.0000156861.58905.96.
54. Lie DA, Lee-Rey E, Gomez A, Bereknyei S, Braddock CH. Does cultural competency training of health professionals improve patient outcomes? A systematic review and proposed algorithm for future research. J Gen Intern Med. 2011;26(3):317-325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-010-1529-0.
55. Varcoe C, Browne AJ, Ford-Gilboe M, et al. Reclaiming our spirits: a health promotion intervention for Indigenous women who have experienced intimate partner violence. Res Nurs Health. 2017;40(3):237-254. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.21795.
56. Hanefeld J, Powell-Jackson T, Balabanova D. Understanding and measuring quality of care: dealing with complexity. Bull World Health Organ. 2017;95:368-374. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.16.179309.
57. Dang BN, Westbrook RA, Njue SM, Giordano TP. Building trust and rapport early in the new doctor-patient relationship: a longitudinal qualitative study. BMC Med Educ. 2017;17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-017-0868-5.
58. Hawe P. Minimal, negligible and negligent interventions. Soc Sci Med. 2015;138:265-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.05.025.
59. Bandura A. Self-efficacy: toward a unifying concept of behavioural change. Psychol Rev. 1977;84(2):191-215.
60. Jones F, Riazi A. Self-efficacy and self-management after stroke: a systematic review. Disability Rehabil. 2011;33(10):797-810. https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2010.511415.
61. Michie S, Johnston M, Francis J, Hardeman W, Eccles M. From theory to intervention: mapping theoretically derived behavioural determinants to behaviour change techniques. Appl Psychol. 2008;57(4):660-680. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2008.00341.x.
62. Davis R, Campbell R, Hildon Z, Hobbs L, Michie S. Theories of behaviour and behaviour change across the social and behavioural sciences: a scoping review. Health Psychol Rev. 2015;9(3):323-344. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2014.941722.
63. Campbell C, Mannell J. Conceptualising the agency of highly marginalised women: intimate partner violence in extreme settings. Global Public Health. 2016;11(1-2):1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2015.1109694.
64. Frohlich KL, Corin E, Potvin L. A theoretical proposal for the relationship between context and disease. Sociol Health Illness. 2001;23(6):776-797. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1467-9566.00275.
65. Giddens A. Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure and Contradictions in Social Analysis. Berkeley: University of California Press; 1979.
66. Metzl JM, Hansen H. Structural competency: theorizing a new medical engagement with stigma and inequality. Soc Sci Med. 2014;103:126-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.06.032.
67. Wong S, Haggerty J. Measuring patient expereinces in primary health care: a review and classification of items and scales used in publicly-available questionnaires. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Center for Health Services and Policy Research; 2013.
68. Bandura A. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York, NY: Freeman; 1997.
69. Da Rocha NS, Power MJ, Bushnell DM, Fleck MP. The EUROHIS-QOL 8-item index: comparative psychometric properties to its parent WHOQOL-BREF. Value in Health. 2012;15(3):449-457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2011.11.035.
70. Schmidt S, Mühlan H, Power M. The EUROHIS-QOL 8-item index: psychometric results of a cross-cultural field study. Eur J Public Health. 2006;16(4):420-428. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cki155.
71. WHOQOL Group. Development of the World Health Organization WHOQOL-BREF quality of life assessment. The WHOQOL Group. Psychol Med. 1998;28(3):551-558. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9626712. Accessed September 15, 2017.
72. Von Korff M, Ormel J, Keefe FJ, Dworkin SF. Grading the severity of chronic pain. Pain. 1992;50:133-149.
73. Mallen C, Peat G, Thomas E, Croft P. Severely disabling chronic pain in young adults: prevalence from a population-based postal survey in North Staffordshire. BMC Musculoskeletal Disord. 2005;6(1):42. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2474-6-42.
74. Tiwari A, Fong DYT, Chan C-H, Ho P-C. Factors mediating the relationship between intimate partner violence and chronic pain in Chinese women. J Interpersonal Violence. 2013;28(5):1067-1087. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260512459380.
75. Wuest J, Ford-Gilboe M, Merritt-Gray M, et al. Abuse-related injury and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder as mechanisms of chronic pain in survivors of intimate partner violence. Pain Med. 2009;10(4):739-747. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00624.x.
76. Weathers FW, Huska JA, Keane TM. PCL-C for DSM-IV. Boston, MA: National Center for PTSD – Behavioral Science Division; 1991.
77. Wilkins KC, Lang AJ, Norman SB. Synthesis of the psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL) military, civilian, and specific versions. Depression Anxiety. 2011;28(7):596-606.
78. Blanchard EB, Jones-Alexander J, Buckley TC, Forneris CA. Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behav Res Ther. 1996;34(8):669-673.
79. Eaton WW. Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: review and revision (CESD and CESD-R). In: Maurish ME, ed. The Use of Psychological Testing for Treatment Planning and Outcomes Assessment. 3rd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 2004.
80. Van Dam NT, Earleywine M. Validation of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale—Revised (CESD-R): pragmatic depression assessment in the general population. Psychiatry Res. 2011;186(1):128-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.08.018.
81. Shariff-Marco S, Breen N, Landrine H, et al. Measuring everyday racial/ethnic discrimination in health surveys: how best to ask the questions, in one or two stages, across multiple racial/ethnic groups? Review. 2011;8(1):159-177. doi:10.10170S1742058X11000129.
82. Ali J, Avison WR. Employment transitions and psychological distress: the contrasting experiences of single and married mothers. J Health Soc Behav. 1997:345-362.
83. Ford-Gilboe M, Wuest J, Varcoe C, et al. Modelling the effects of intimate partner violence and access to resources on women's health in the early years after leaving an abusive partner. Soc Sci Med. 2009;68(6):1021-1029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.01.003.
84. Ford-Gilboe M, Varcoe C, Noh M, et al. Patterns and predictors of service use among women who have separated from an abusive partner. J Fam Violence. 2015;30(4):419-431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-015-9688-8.
85. Statistics Canada. Census Profile 2011 Census. Statistics Canada Catalogue No. 98-316-XWE. Ottawa, ON: Statisics Canada; 2012. http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E. Accessed October 10, 2018.
86. Statistics Canada. National Household Survey, Statistics Canada Catalogue No. 99-011-X2011026. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada; 2011. http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/dp-pd/dt-td/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=0&PID=105401&PRID=0&PTYPE=105277&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2013&THEME=94&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=. Accessed October 10, 2018.
87. Statistics Canada. Portrait of Canada's Labour Force, National Household Survey 2011. Catalogue No. 99-012-X2011002, ISBN: 978-1-100-22408-4. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada; 2013. http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-012-x/99-012-x2011002-eng.pdf. Accessed October 10, 2018.
88. Statistics Canada. Education in Canada: Attainment, Field of Study and Location of Study, National Household Survey, 2011. Catalogue No. 99-012-X2011001. Ottawa, ON: Statistics, Canada; 2013. http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-012-x/99-012-x2011001-eng.pdf. Accessed October 10, 2018.
89. Government of Canada. Social Assistance Statistical Report. Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada; 2013. https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/services/social-assistance/reports/statistical-2009-2013.html#h2.8-3.2. Accessed October 10, 2018.
90. Statistics Canada. 2011 Census of Population. Statistics Canada Catalogue No. 98-313-XCB2011024. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada; 2012. http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/tbt-tt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=0&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=102239&PRID=10&PTYPE=101955&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2011&THEME=91&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=. Accessed October 10, 2018.
91. Padula WV, Millis MA, Worku AD, Pronovost PJ, Bridges JFP, Meltzer DO. Individualized cost-effectiveness analysis of patient-centered care: a case series of hospitalized patient preferences departing from practice-based guidelines. J Med Econ. 2017;20(3):288-296. https://doi.org/10.1080/13696998.2016.1254091.
92. Farrer L, Marinetti C, Cavaco YK, Costongs C. Advocacy for health equity: a synthesis review. Milbank Q. 2015;93(2):392-437. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12112.
93. Lavoie JG, Varcoe C, Wathen CN, Ford-Gilboe M, Browne AJ. Sentinels of inequity: examining policy requirements for equity-oriented primary healthcare. BMC Health Services Research. 2018;18:705. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-018-3501-3.
94. Fiscella K. Health care reform and equity: promise, pitfalls, and prescriptions. Ann Fam Med. 2011;9(1):78-84. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1213.
95. Baum FE, Legge DG, Freeman T, Lawless A, Labonté R, Jolley GM. The potential for multi-disciplinary primary health care services to take action on the social determinants of health: actions and constraints. BMC Public Health. 2013;13(1):460. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-460.