Mediterranean UNESCO World Heritage at risk from coastal flooding and erosion due to sea-level rise

Nature Communications

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2018, Pages

  Reimann, Lena ^a   Vafeidis, Athanasios T ^a   Brown, Sally ^b,c   Hinkel, Jochen ^d   Tol, Richard S J ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KIEL   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

^c BOURNEMOUTH UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^d Global Climate Forum (GCF)   (Germany)

^e UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; FLOODING; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; INHERITANCE; RISK ASSESSMENT; SEA LEVEL RISE; SEASHORE;

EID: 85055073982     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20411723     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06645-9     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. UNESCO. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage http://whc.unesco.org/archive/convention-en.pdf (UNESCO, Paris, 1972)
2. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. World Heritage List http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/ (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris, 2018)
3. Terrill, G. Climate change. How should the world heritage convention respond? Int. J. Herit. Stud. 14, 388–404 (2008)
4. Cazenave, A. Anthropogenic global warming threatens world cultural heritage. Environ. Res. Lett. 9, 51001 (2014)
5. Reeder, L. A., Rick, T. C. & Erlandson, J. M. Our disappearing past. A GIS analysis of the vulnerability of coastal archaeological resources in California’s Santa Barbara Channel region. J. Coast. Conserv. 16, 187–197 (2012)
6. Benoit, G. & Comeau, A. A Sustainable Future for the Mediterranean. The Blue Plan’s Environment and Development Outlook (Earthscan, London, 2005)
7. Marzeion, B. & Levermann, A. Loss of cultural world heritage and currently inhabited places to sea-level rise. Environ. Res. Lett. 9, 34001 (2014)
8. Sabbioni, C., Cassar, M., Brimblecombe, P. & Lefevre, R. A. Vulnerability of cultural heritage to climate change. https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/majorhazards/activites/2009/Ravello15-16may09/Ravello_APCAT2008_44_Sabbioni-Jan09_EN.pdf (2008)
9. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Policy Document on the Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/activity-397-2.pdf (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris, 2008)
10. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. World Heritage Review http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002355/235561e.pdf (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris, 2015)
11. Howard, A. J. Managing global heritage in the face of future climate change. The importance of understanding geological and geomorphological processes and hazards. Int. J. Herit. Stud. 19, 632–658 (2013)
12. Phillips, H. The capacity to adapt to climate change at heritage sites—the development of a conceptual framework. Environ. Sci. Policy 47, 118–125 (2015)
13. Lollino, G. et al. (eds). Engineering Geology for Society and Territory—Volume 8 (Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2015)
14. European Environment Agency (EEA). Horizon 2020 Mediterranean Report. Toward Shared Environmental Information Systems—EEA-UNEP/MAP Joint Report (Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2014)
15. UNEP/MAP. Regional Climate Change Adaptation Framework for the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Areas (UNEP/MAP, Athens, Greece, 2017)
16. Scussolini, P. et al. FLOPROS. An evolving global database of flood protection standards. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 16, 1049–1061 (2016)
17. UNEP/MAP. Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development 2016–2025. Investing in eNvironmental Sustainability to Achieve Social and Economic Development (Plan Bleu, Regional Activity Centre, Valbonne, 2016)
18. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Climate Change and World Heritage. World Heritage Report Vol. 22 whc.unesco.org/documents/publi_wh_papers_22_en.pdf (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris, 2007)
19. Phillips, H. Adaptation to climate change at UK World Heritage Sites. Progress and challenges. Hist. Environ. Policy Pract. 5, 288–299 (2014)
20. Fatorić, S. & Seekamp, E. Are cultural heritage and resources threatened by climate change? A systematic literature review. Clim. Change 142, 227–254 (2017)
21. Perry, J. World Heritage hot spots. A global model identifies the 16 natural heritage properties on the World Heritage List most at risk from climate change. Int. J. Herit. Stud. 17, 426–441 (2011)
22. Howard, A. J. et al. Assessing riverine threats to heritage assets posed by future climate change through a geomorphological approach and predictive modelling in the Derwent Valley Mills WHS, UK. J. Cult. Herit. 19, 387–394 (2016)
23. Anderson, D. G. et al. Sea-level rise and archaeological site destruction: an example from the southeastern United States using DINAA (Digital Index of North American Archaeology). PLoS ONE 12, e0188142 (2017)
24. Wang, J.-J. Flood risk maps to cultural heritage. Meas. Process. J. Cult. Herit. 16, 210–220 (2015)
25. Daly, C. The Potential for Indicators in the Management of Climate Change Impacts on Cultural Heritage http://arrow.dit.ie/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=beschreccon (Berlin, Germany, 2011)
26. Schmidt, M. & Rudolff, B. Climate change and cultural heritage: findings of a rapid vulnerability assessment of cultural heritage in the Republic of Macedonia and recommendations towards National Strategies for Cultural Heritage Protection in the context of Climate Change. Project report. http://docshare04.docshare.tips/files/24286/242864272.pdf (2013)
27. Lanza, S. G. Flood hazard threat on cultural heritage in the town of Genoa (Italy). J. Cult. Herit. 4, 159–167 (2003)
28. Hapciuc, O.-E. et al. Flood susceptibility analysis of the cultural heritage in the Sucevita catchment (Romania). Int. J. Conserv. Sci. 7, 501–510 (2016)
29. Vojinovic, Z. et al. Holistic approach to flood risk assessment in areas with cultural heritage. A practical application in Ayutthaya, Thailand. Nat. Hazards 81, 589–616 (2016)
30. Cigna, F., Tapete, D. & Lee, K. Geological hazards in the UNESCO World Heritage sites of the UK. From the global to the local scale perspective. Earth Sci. Rev. 176, 166–194 (2018)
31. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention http://whc.unesco.org/en/guidelines/ (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris, 2015)
32. Reimann, L., Vafeidis, A. T., Brown, S., Hinkel, J. & Tol, R. S. J. UNESCO Cultural World Heritage in the Mediterranean coastal zone. Figshare https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.5759538 (2018)
33. McGranahan, G., Balk, D. & Anderson, B. The rising tide. Assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones. Environ. Urban 19, 17–37 (2016)
34. Reeder-Myers, L. A. Cultural heritage at risk in the twenty-first century. A vulnerability assessment of coastal archaeological sites in the United States. J. Isl. Coast. Archaeol. 10, 436–445 (2015)
35. Ramieri, E. et al. Methods for assessing coastal vulnerability to climate change. ETC CCA Technical Paper 1/2011 ftp://sitelftp.unine.ch/bouzelboudjen/Guelat_Jeremie_2013_UniNE_Geog/BD_risques_%20cotiers/doc/Methods%20for%20assessing%20coastal.pdf (2011)
36. Seenath, A., Wilson, M. & Miller, K. Hydrodynamic versus GIS modelling for coastal flood vulnerability assessment. Which is better for guiding coastal management? Ocean Coast. Manag. 120, 99–109 (2016)
37. de Moel, H., van Alphen, J. & Aerts, J. C. J. H. Flood maps in Europe—methods, availability and use. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 9, 289–301 (2009)
38. European Union. Directive 2007/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2007 on the assessment and management of flood risks. Off. J. Eur. Union 50, 27–34 (2007)
39. UNEP/MAP. Protocol on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the Mediterranean. Protocole relatif à la gestion intégrée des zones côtières de la Méditerranée=Protocolo relativo a la gestion integrada de las zonas costeras del Mediterraneo (Priority Actions Programme, Split, 2008)
40. McLaughlin, S. & Cooper, J. A. G. A multi-scale coastal vulnerability index. A tool for coastal managers? Environ. Hazards 9, 233–248 (2010)
41. Hermans, L. M., Haasnoot, M., ter Maat, J. & Kwakkel, J. H. Designing monitoring arrangements for collaborative learning about adaptation pathways. Environ. Sci. Policy 69, 29–38 (2017)
42. Kwakkel, J. H., Haasnoot, M. & Walker, W. E. Comparing Robust Decision-making and dynamic adaptive policy pathways for model-based decision support under deep uncertainty. Environ. Model. Softw. 86, 168–183 (2016)
43. van Vuuren, D. P. et al. RCP2.6: exploring the possibility to keep global mean temperature increase below 2°C. Clim. Change 109, 95 (2011)
44. United Nations. Paris Agreement http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_paris_agreement.pdf (United Nations, New York 2015)
45. Vousdoukas, M. I., Mentaschi, L., Voukouvalas, E., Verlaan, M. & Feyen, L. Extreme sea levels on the rise along Europe’s coasts. Earth’s Fut. 5, 304–323 (2017)
46. Rockström, J. et al. The world’s biggest gamble. Earth’s Fut. 4, 465–470 (2016)
47. Rogelj, J. et al. Paris Agreement climate proposals need a boost to keep warming well below 2 degrees C. Nature 534, 631–639 (2016)
48. Schleussner, C.-F. et al. Science and policy characteristics of the Paris Agreement temperature goal. Nat. Clim. Change 6, 827–835 (2016)
49. Margottini, C. in Engineering Geology for Society and Territory—Volume 8 (eds Lollino, G. et al.) 1–28 (Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2015)
50. Bowcott, O. Stone by stone: rebuilt tower open to public https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2008/aug/29/architecture.heritage (2008)
51. Belle Tout lighthouse https://www.belletout.co.uk/information/history/ (2018)
52. US National Park Service. Moving the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse https://www.nps.gov/caha/learn/historyculture/movingthelighthouse.htm (2015)
53. Klein, R. J. T. & Nicholls, R. J. in Handbook on Methods for Climate Change Impacts Assessment and Adaptation Strategies (eds Feenstra, J. F. et al.) (United Nations Environment Programme and Institute for Environmental Studies, Nairobi, 1998)
54. Hambly, J. A Review of Heritage at Risk from Coastal Processes in Scotland. Results from the Scotland’s Coastal Heritage at Risk Project 2012–2016 http://scharp.co.uk/media/medialibrary/2018/02/Review_of_Coastal_Heritage_at_Risk.pdf (2017)
55. Khakzad, S., Pieters, M. & van Balen, K. Coastal cultural heritage. A resource to be included in integrated coastal zone management. Ocean Coast. Manag. 118, 110–128 (2015)
56. Temmerman, S. et al. Ecosystem-based coastal defence in the face of global change. Nature 504, 79–83 (2013)
57. van Wesenbeeck, B. K., Boer, W., de Narayan, S., van der Star, W. R. L. & de Vries, M. B. Coastal and riverine ecosystems as adaptive flood defenses under a changing climate. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change 22, 1087–1094 (2017)
58. Buchanan, M. K., Kopp, R. E., Oppenheimer, M. & Tebaldi, C. Allowances for evolving coastal flood risk under uncertain local sea-level rise. Clim. Change 137, 347–362 (2016)
59. Ward, P. J. et al. Usefulness and limitations of global flood risk models. Nat. Clim. Change 5, 712–715 (2015)
60. Hinkel, J. et al. Coastal flood damage and adaptation costs under 21st century sea-level rise. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 111, 3292–3297 (2014)
61. Muis, S., Guneralp, B., Jongman, B., Aerts, J. C. J. H. & Ward, P. J. Flood risk and adaptation strategies under climate change and urban expansion: a probabilistic analysis using global data. Sci. Total Environ. 538, 445–457 (2015)
62. Jongman, B., Ward, P. J. & Aerts, J. C. Global exposure to river and coastal flooding. Long term trends and changes. Glob. Environ. Change 22, 823–835 (2012)
63. Aerts, J. C. J. H. et al. Climate adaptation. Evaluating flood resilience strategies for coastal megacities. Science 344, 473–475 (2014)
64. Ward, P. J. et al. A global framework for future costs and benefits of river-flood protection in urban areas. Nat. Clim. Change 7, 642–646 (2017)
65. Taylor, T., Hunt, A., Cassar, M. & Wainwright, I. in Engineering Historic Futures. Stakeholders Dissemination and Scientific Research Report (eds Cassar, M. & Hawkings, C.) 124–144 (UCL Centre for Sustainable Heritage, London, 2007)
66. Vousdoukas, M. I. et al. Developments in large-scale coastal flood hazard mapping. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 16, 1841–1853 (2016)
67. Vousdoukas, M. I. et al. Understanding epistemic uncertainty in large-scale coastal flood risk assessment for present and future climates. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. Discuss., 1–27 (2018)
68. Ramirez, J. A., Lichter, M., Coulthard, T. J. & Skinner, C. Hyper-resolution mapping of regional storm surge and tide flooding. Comparison of static and dynamic models. Nat. Hazards 82, 571–590 (2016)
69. Poulter, B. & Halpin, P. N. Raster modelling of coastal flooding from sea‐level rise. Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci. 22, 167–182 (2008)
70. Wolff, C., Vafeidis, A. T., Lincke, D., Marasmi, C. & Hinkel, J. Effects of scale and input data on assessing the future impacts of coastal flooding. An application of DIVA for the Emilia–Romagna Coast. Front. Mar. Sci. 3, 34 (2016)
71. Hoozemans, F. M., Marchand, M. & Pennekamp, H. A. Sea Level Rise: A Global Vulnerability Analysis. Vulnerability Assessment for Population, Coastal Wetlands and Rice Production on a Global Scale (Delft Hydraulics, Delft, 1993)
72. Muis, S., Verlaan, M., Winsemius, H. C., Aerts, J. C. J. H. & Ward, P. J. A global reanalysis of storm surges and extreme sea levels. Nat. Commun. 7, 11969 (2016)
73. Muis, S. et al. A comparison of two global datasets of extreme sea levels and resulting flood exposure. Earth’s Fut. 5, 379–392 (2017)
74. de Moel, H. et al. Flood risk assessments at different spatial scales. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change 20, 865–890 (2015)
75. Città di Venezia. State of Conservation Reports by the State Party. World Heritage Property Venice and its Lagoon—(Italy) (C 394) http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/394/documents/ (2017)
76. Hanson, S. et al. A global ranking of port cities with high exposure to climate extremes. Clim. Change 104, 89–111 (2011)
77. Hallegatte, S., Green, C., Nicholls, R. J. & Corfee-Morlot, J. Future flood losses in major coastal cities. Nat. Clim. Change 3, 802–806 (2013)
78. Bock, Y., Wdowinski, S., Ferretti, A., Novali, F. & Fumagalli, A. Recent subsidence of the Venice Lagoon from continuous GPS and interferometric synthetic aperture radar. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 13, 1–13 (2012)
79. Nicholls, R. J. Coastal megacities and climate change. GeoJournal 37, 369–379 (1995)
80. Syvitski, J. P. M. et al. Sinking deltas due to human activities. Nat. Geosci. 2, 681–686 (2009)
81. Taramelli, A., Di Matteo, L., Ciavola, P., Guadagnano, F. & Tolomei, C. Temporal evolution of patterns and processes related to subsidence of the coastal area surrounding the Bevano River mouth (Northern Adriatic)—Italy. Ocean Coast. Manag. 108, 74–88 (2015)
82. Lichter, M., Vafeidis, A. T., Nicholls, R. J. & Kaiser, G. Exploring data-related uncertainties in analyses of land area and population in the “Low-Elevation Coastal Zone” (LECZ). J. Coast. Res. 274, 757–768 (2011)
83. Sampson, C. C. et al. A high-resolution global flood hazard model. Water Resour. Res. 51, 7358–7381 (2015)
84. Città di Venezia. The Altimetry of the Historical Center: Percentage of Flooding http://www.comune.venezia.it/archivio/EN/1754 (2016)
85. Kulp, S. & Strauss, B. H. Global DEM errors underpredict coastal vulnerability to sea level rise and flooding. Front. Earth Sci. 4, 4823 (2016)
86. Kulp, S. A. & Strauss, B. H. CoastalDEM. A global coastal digital elevation model improved from SRTM using a neural network. Remote Sens. Environ. 206, 231–239 (2018)
87. Jongman, B. et al. Declining vulnerability to river floods and the global benefits of adaptation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112, E2271–E2280 (2015)
88. Zhou, Q., Leng, G. & Feng, L. Predictability of state-level flood damage in the conterminous United States: the role of hazard, exposure and vulnerability. Sci. Rep. 7, 5354 (2017)
89. Klijn, F., Kreibich, H., de Moel, H. & Penning-Rowsell, E. Adaptive flood risk management planning based on a comprehensive flood risk conceptualisation. Mitig. Adapt. Strateg. Glob. Change 20, 845–864 (2015)
90. IPCC. Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation. Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (eds Field, C. B. et al.) 582 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2012)
91. Oppenheimer, M. et al. in Climate Change 2014. Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability/edited by Christopher B. Field, Working Group II Co-Chair, Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science, Vicente R. Barros, Working Group II Co-Chair, Centro de Investigaciones del Mar y la Atmósfera, Universidad de Buenos Aires [and 14 others] (ed Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)) 1039–1099 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 2014)
92. Gornitz, V. M., Daniels, R. C., White, T. W. & Birdwell, K. R. The development of a coastal risk assessment database: vulnerability to sea-level rise in the U.S. Southeast. J. Coast. Res. 12, 327–338 (1994)
93. Torresan, S., Critto, A., Rizzi, J. & Marcomini, A. Assessment of coastal vulnerability to climate change hazards at the regional scale. The case study of the North Adriatic Sea. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 12, 2347–2368 (2012)
94. Satta, A., Venturini, S., Puddu, M., Firth, J. & Lafitte, A. Strengthening the Knowledge Base on Regional Climate Variability and Change: Application of a Multi-Scale Coastal Risk Index at Regional and Local Scale in the Mediterranean http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/publications/multi-scale_coastal_risk_index.pdf (2015)
95. Daire, M.-Y. et al. Coastal changes and cultural heritage (1). Assessment of the vulnerability of the coastal heritage in Western France. J. Isl. Coast. Archaeol. 7, 168–182 (2012)
96. Mavromatidi, A., Briche, E. & Claeys, C. Mapping and analyzing socio-environmental vulnerability to coastal hazards induced by climate change. An application to coastal Mediterranean cities in France. Cities 72, 189–200 (2018)
97. Peduzzi, P., Dao, H., Herold, C. & Mouton, F. Assessing global exposure and vulnerability towards natural hazards. The Disaster Risk Index. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 9, 1149–1159 (2009)
98. Balica, S. F., Wright, N. G. & van der Meulen, F. A flood vulnerability index for coastal cities and its use in assessing climate change impacts. Nat. Hazards 64, 73–105 (2012)
99. Daly, C. A framework for assessing the vulnerability of archaeological sites to climate change. theory, development, and application. Conserv. Manag. Archaeol. Sites 16, 268–282 (2014)
100. Chang, A. Y. et al. Combining Google Earth and GIS mapping technologies in a dengue surveillance system for developing countries. Int. J. Health Geogr. 8, 49 (2009)
101. Dassanayake, D., Burzel, A. & Oumeraci, H. Evaluation of Cultural Losses https://www.tu-braunschweig.de/Medien-DB/hyku-xr/43_dassanayake_et_al_xtremrisk_evaluation_of_cultural_losses.pdf (2012)
102. PROTHEGO project. Map Viewer http://mapapps2.bgs.ac.uk/prothego/index.html (2018)
103. Jarvis, A., Reuter, H. I., Nelson, A. & Guevara, E. Hole-Filled SRTM for the Globe Version 4, Available From the CGIAR-CSI SRTM 90m Database http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org (2008)
104. Farr, T. G. et al. The shuttle radar topography mission. Rev. Geophys. 45, doi:10.1029/2005rg000183 (2007)
105. Kron, W. Flood risk=hazard • values • vulnerability. Water Int. 30, 58–68 (2005)
106. Neumann, B., Vafeidis, A. T., Zimmermann, J. & Nicholls, R. J. Future coastal population growth and exposure to sea-level rise and coastal flooding—a global assessment. PLoS ONE 10, e0118571 (2015)
107. Nicholls, R. J. et al. Ranking Port Cities with High Exposure and Vulnerability to Climate Extremes: Exposure Estimates. OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 1, 10.1787/011766488208 (2008)
108. Wolff, C. et al. A Mediterranean coastal database for assessing the impacts of sea-level rise and associated hazards. Sci. Data 5, 180044 (2018)
109. Wolff, C. et al. Mediterranean coastal database (MCD). Figshare 10.6084/m9.figshare.c.3145426.v1 (2018)
110. Rio, M.-H., Mulet, S. & Picot, N. Beyond GOCE for the ocean circulation estimate. Synergetic use of altimetry, gravimetry, and in situ data provides new insight into geostrophic and Ekman currents. Geophys. Res. Lett. 41, 8918–8925 (2014)
111. van Vuuren, D. P. et al. The representative concentration pathways. An overview. Clim. Change 109, 5–31 (2011)
112. Kopp, R. E. et al. Evolving understanding of Antarctic ice-sheet physics and ambiguity in probabilistic sea-level projections. Earth’s Fut. 5, 1217–1233 (2017)
113. Kopp, R. E. et al. Probabilistic 21st and 22nd century sea-level projections at a global network of tide-gauge sites. Earth’s Fut. 2, 383–406 (2014)
114. Church, J. A. et al. in Climate Change 2013. The Physical Science Basis: Working Group I Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change/edited by Thomas F. Stocker, Working Group I co-chair, University of Bern [and nine others] (ed Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York, 2013)
115. Hirt, C. Artefact detection in global digital elevation models (DEMs): the maximum slope approach and its application for complete screening of the SRTM v4.1 and MERIT DEMs. Remote Sens. Environ. 207, 27–41 (2018)
116. Messner, F. et al. Evaluating flood damages: guidance and recommendations on principles and methods. T9-06-01, FLOODsite Project—Integrated Flood Risk Analysis and Management Methodologies http://www.floodsite.net/html/partner_area/project_docs/T09_06_01_Flood_damage_guidelines_d9_1_v2_2_p44.pdf (2007)
117. Boruff, B. J., Emrich, C. & Cutter, S. L. Erosion hazard vulnerability of US coastal counties. J. Coast. Res. 215, 932–942 (2005)
118. Pendleton, E. A., Thieler, R. E. & Williams, J. S. Coastal Vulnerability Assessment of Cape Hatteras National Seashore (CAHA) to Sea-Level Rise https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1064/images/pdf/caha.pdf (2004)
119. UNEP/MAP. State of the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Environments https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/364/sommcer_eng.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y (UNEP/MAP Athens, 2012)
120. Wessel, P. & Smith, W. H. F. A global, self-consistent, hierarchical, high-resolution shoreline database. J. Geophys. Res. 101, 8741–8743 (1996)
121. Antonioli, F. et al. Sea-level rise and potential drowning of the Italian coastal plains. Flooding risk scenarios for 2100. Quat. Sci. Rev. 158, 29–43 (2017)
122. Schuerch, M. et al. Future response of global coastal wetlands to sea level rise. Nature 561, 231–234 (2018)
123. Doerffer, R. & Schiller, H. The MERIS Case 2 water algorithm. Int. J. Remote. Sens. 28, 517–535 (2010)
124. Ninfo, A., Ciavola, P. & Billi, P. The Po Delta is restarting progradation: geomorphological evolution based on a 47-years Earth Observation dataset. Sci. Rep. 8, 3457 (2018)
125. Besset, M., Anthony, E. J. & Sabatier, F. River delta shoreline reworking and erosion in the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The potential roles of fluvial sediment starvation and other factors. Elem. Sci. Anth. 5, 54 (2017)
126. Özhan, E. Coastal Erosion Management in the Mediterranean: An Overview. Ankara/Split https://www.pap-thecoastcentre.org/about.php?blob_id=42&lang=en (2002)