Interventions for managing skeletal muscle spasticity following traumatic brain injury

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Volumn 2017, Issue 11, 2017, Pages

  Synnot, Anneliese ^a,b   Chau, Marisa ^b   Pitt, Veronica ^b   O'Connor, Denise ^a   Gruen, Russell L ^c   Wasiak, Jason ^d   Clavisi, Ornella ^e   Pattuwage, Loyal ^f   Phillips, Kate ^a  

^a MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^c NANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY   (Singapore)

^d THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

^e bone joint health   (Australia)

^f Centre for Evidence and Implementation   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BACLOFEN; BOTULINUM TOXIN A; TIZANIDINE; CENTRAL MUSCLE RELAXANT; MUSCLE RELAXANT AGENT;

ADVERSE OUTCOME; CAST APPLICATION; CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; COMMUNITY LIVING; DAILY LIFE ACTIVITY; DRUG INDUSTRY; ELECTROTHERAPY; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT; GOVERNMENT; HUMAN; INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONING, DISABILITY AND HEALTH; MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY; MOVEMENT (PHYSIOLOGY); MUSCULOSKELETAL FUNCTION; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PAIN; PHYSIOTHERAPY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITY OF LIFE; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SELF CARE; SENSORY SYSTEM; SKIN DEFECT; SOCIAL LIFE; SPASTICITY; SPLINTING; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TILT TABLE TEST; TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY; TREATMENT RESPONSE; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION; COMPLICATION; HEAD-DOWN TILT; ORTHOPEDIC CAST;

BACLOFEN; BOTULINUM TOXINS, TYPE A; BRAIN INJURIES, TRAUMATIC; CASTS, SURGICAL; ELECTRIC STIMULATION THERAPY; HEAD-DOWN TILT; HUMANS; MUSCLE RELAXANTS, CENTRAL; MUSCLE SPASTICITY; NEUROMUSCULAR AGENTS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC;

EID: 85034832792     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1469493X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD008929.pub2     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Gracies JM, Brashear A, Jech R, McAllister P, Banach M, Valkovic P, et al. Safety and efficacy of abobotulinumtoxinA for hemiparesis in adults with upper limb spasticity after stroke or traumatic brain injury: a double-blind randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurology 2015;14:992-1001. 7069361
2. ®) in the treatment of adult patients with upper limb spasticity due to traumatic brain injury. PM & R: the Journal of Injury, Function, and Rehabilitation 2015;7:S103. 7069362
3. Leung J, Harvey LA, Moseley AM, Whiteside B, Simpson M, Stroud K. Standing with electrical stimulation and splinting is no better than standing alone for management of ankle plantarflexion contractures in people with traumatic brain injury: a randomised trial. Journal of Physiotherapy 2014;60:201-8. 7069364
4. Meythaler JM, DeVivo MJ, Hadley M. Prospective study on the use of bolus intrathecal baclofen for spastic hypertonia due to acquired brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1996; Vol. 77, issue 5:461-6. 7069366
5. Meythaler JM, McCary A, Hadley MN. Prospective assessment of continuous intrathecal infusion of baclofen for spasticity caused by acquired brain injury: a preliminary report. Journal of Neurosurgery 1997; Vol. 87, issue 3:415-9. 7069368
6. Meythaler JM, Guin-Renfroe S, Hadley MN. Continuously infused intrathecal baclofen for spastic/dystonic hemiplegia: a preliminary report. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 1999; Vol. 78, issue 3:247-54. 7069370
7. Meythaler JM, Guin-Renfroe S, Grabb P, Hadley MN. Long-term continuously infused intrathecal baclofen for spastic-dystonic hypertonia in traumatic brain injury: 1-year experience. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1999; Vol. 80, issue 1:13-9. 7069372
8. NCT00287157. Pilot, proof-of-concept study of sublingual tizanidine in children with chronic traumatic brain injury (TBI). clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00287157 Date first received: 6 February 2006. 7069374
9. Pittaccio S, Garavaglia L, Viscuso S, Beretta E, Strazzer S. Implementation, testing and pilot clinical evaluation of superelastic splints that decrease joint stiffness. Annals of Biomedical Engineering 2013;41:2003-17. 7069376
10. Verplancke D, Snape S, Salisbury CF, Jones PW, Ward AB. A randomized controlled trial of botulinum toxin on lower limb spasticity following acute acquired severe brain injury. Clinical Rehabilitation 2005; Vol. 19, issue 2:117-25. 7069378
11. Armstrong RW, Steinbok P, Cochrane DD, Kube SD, Fife SE, Farrell K. Intrathecally administered baclofen for treatment of children with spasticity of cerebral origin. Journal of Neurosurgery 1997;87(3):409-14. 7069380
12. Ashby P, Burke D, Rao S, Jones RF. Assessment of cyclobenzaprine in the treatment of spasticity. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 1972; Vol. 35, issue 5:599-605. 7069382
13. Baricich A, Carda S, Bertoni M, Maderna L, Cisari C. A single-blinded, randomized pilot study of botulinum toxin type a combined with non-pharmacological treatment for spastic foot. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 2008; Vol. 40, issue 10:870-2. 7069384
14. Barnes M, Schnitzler A, Medeiros L, Aguilar M, Lehnert-Batar A, Minnasch P. Efficacy and safety of NT 201 for upper limb spasticity of various etiologies - a randomized parallel-group study. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica 2010; Vol. 122, issue 4:295-302. 7069386
15. Basmajian JV, Super GA. Dantrolene sodium in the treatment of spasticity. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1973; Vol. 54, issue 2:61-4. 7069388
16. Basmajian JV, Yucel V. Effects of a GABA-derivative (BA-34647) on spasticity. Preliminary report of a double-blind cross-over study. American Journal of Physical Medicine 1974; Vol. 53, issue 5:223-8. 7069390
17. Bensmail D, Robertson JVG, Fermanian C, Roby-Brami A. Botulinum toxin to treat upper-limb spasticity in hemiparetic patients: analysis of function and kinematics of reaching movements. Neurorehabilitation & Neural Repair 2010; Vol. 24, issue 3:273-81. 7069392
18. Bes A, Eyssette M, Pierrot-Deseilligny E, Rohmer F, Warter JM. A multi-centre, double-blind trial of tizanidine, a new antispastic agent, in spasticity associated with hemiplegia. Current Medical Research and Opinion 1988; Vol. 10, issue 10:709-18. 7069394
19. Bovend'Eerdt TJH, Dawes H, Sackley C, Izadi H, Wade DT. Mental techniques during manual stretching in spasticity - a pilot randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2009; Vol. 23, issue 2:137-45. [0269-2155]7069396
20. Boyd RN, Dobson F, Parrott J, Love S, Oates J, Larson A, et al. The effect of botulinum toxin type A and a variable hip abduction orthosis on gross motor function: a randomized controlled trial. European Journal of Neurology 2001; Vol. 8, issue Suppl 5:109-19. 7069398
21. Burbaud P, Wiart L, Dubos JL, Gaujard E, Debelleix X, Joseph PA, et al. A randomised, double blind, placebo controlled trial of botulinum toxin in the treatment of spastic foot in hemiparetic patients. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 1996/09/01 1996; Vol. 61, issue 3:265-9. 7069400
22. Burke D, Hammond C, Skuse N, Jones RF. A phenothiazine derivative in the treatment of spasticity. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 1975; Vol. 38, issue 5:469-74. 7069402
23. Chang CL, Munin MC, Skidmore ER, Niyonkuru C, Huber LM, Weber DJ. Effect of baseline spastic hemiparesis on recover of upper-limb function following botulinum toxin type A injections and postinjection therapy. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2009;90:1462-7. 7069404
24. Childers MK, Stacy M, Cooke DL, Stonnington HH. Comparison of two injection techniques using botulinum toxin in spastic hemiplegia. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 1996; Vol. 75, issue 6:462-9. 7069406
25. Cocchiarella A, Downey JA, Darling RC. Evaluation of the effect of diazepam on spasticity. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1967; Vol. 48, issue 8:393-6. 7069408
26. Cohan SL, Raines A, Panagakos J, Armitage P. Phenytoin and chlorpromazine in the treatment of spasticity. Archives of Neurology 1980; Vol. 37, issue 6:360-4. 7069410
27. Copley J, Kuipers K, Fleming J, Rassafiani M. Individualised resting hand splints for adults with acquired brain injury: a randomized, single blinded, single case design. Neurorehabilitation 2013;32:885-98. 7069412
28. Corry IS, Cosgrove AP, Duffy CM, McNeill S, Taylor TC, Graham HK. Botulinum toxin A compared with stretching casts in the treatment of spastic equinus: a randomised prospective trial. Journal of Pediatric Orthopedics. 1998/05/26 1998; Vol. 18, issue 3:304-11. 7069414
29. Fazekas G, Horvath M, Troznai T, Toth A. Robot-mediated upper limb physiotherapy for patients with spastic hemiparesis: a preliminary study. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine 2007; Vol. 39, issue 7:580-2. [1650-1977]7069416
30. Fietzek UM, Kossmehl P, Schelosky L, Ebersbach G, Wissel J. Early botulinum toxin treatment for spastic pes equinovarus - a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. European Journal of Neurology 2014;21:1089-95. 7069418
31. Francisco GE, Boake C, Vaughn A. Botulinum toxin in upper limb spasticity after acquired brain injury: a randomized trial comparing dilution techniques. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 2002; Vol. 81, issue 5:355-63. 7069420
32. Gracies JM, Lugassy M, Weisz DJ, Vecchio M, Flanagan S, Simpson DM. Botulinum toxin dilution and endplate targeting in spasticity: a double-blind controlled study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2009; Vol. 90, issue 1:9-16. 7069422
33. Gracies JM, Weisz DJ, Yang BY, Flanagan S, Simpson DM. Impact of botulinum toxin type A (BTX-A) dilution and endplate targeting technique in upper limb spasticity (abstract). Annals of Neurology 2002;52(Suppl 3):S87. 7069423
34. Grazko MA, Polo KB, Jabbari B. Botulinum toxin A for spasticity, muscle spasms, and rigidity. Neurology. 1995/04/01 1995; Vol. 45, issue 4:712-7. [0028-3878: (Print)]7069425
35. Guo F, Yue W, Ren L, Zhang YM, Yang J. Botulinum toxin type A plus rehabilitative training for improving the motor function of the upper limbs and activities of daily life in patients with stroke and brain injury. Neural Regeneration Research 2006; Vol. 1, issue 9:859-61. 7069427
36. Harvey MS, Knight JDS, Lal R, Stockley AGI, Timney AP, White CJ, et al. A comparative trial of dimethothiazine in spastic conditions. A report from the General Practitioner Research Group. Practitioner 1974; Vol. 213, issue 1273:101-5. 7069429
37. Harvey L, de Jong I, Goehl G, Mardwedel S. Twelve weeks of nightly stretch does not reduce thumb web-space contractures in people with a neurological condition: a randomised controlled trial. Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 2006;52(4):251-8. 7069431
38. Hill J. The effects of casting on upper extremity motor disorders after brain injury. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 1994; Vol. 48, issue 3:219-24. 7069433
39. Imle PC, Eppinghaus CE, Boughton AC. Efficacy of non-bivalved and bivalved serial casting on head injured patients in intensive care. Physical Therapy 1986; Vol. 66:748 (abstract). 7069435
40. Krewer C, Hartl S, Müller F, Koenig E. Effects of repetitive peripheral magnetic stimulation on upper-limb spasticity and impairment in patients with spastic hemiparesis: a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled study. Archives of Physical and Medical Rehabilitation 2014;95:1039-47. 7069437
41. Lannin NA, Horsley SA, Herbert R, McCuskey A, Cusiek A. Splinting the hand in the functional position after brain impairment: a randomized, controlled trial. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2003; Vol. 84, issue 2:297-302. 7069439
42. Leung J, Harvey LA, Moseley AM, Tse C, Bryant J, Wyndham S, et al. Electrical stimulation and splinting were not clearly more effective than splinting alone for contracture management after acquired brain injury: a randomised trial. Journal of Physiotherapy 2012;58:231-40. 7069441
43. Levine IM, Jossmann PB, Friend DG, DeAngelis V. Prazepam in the treatment of spasticity. A quantitative double-blind evaluation. Neurology 1969; Vol. 19, issue 5:510-6. 7069443
44. Levine IM, Jossmann PB, DeAngelis V. Liorseal, a new muscle relaxant in the treatment of spasticity - a double-blind quantitative evaluation. Diseases of the Nervous System 1977; Vol. 38, issue 12:1011-5. 7069445
45. Mancini F, Sandrini G, Moglia A, Nappi G, Pacchetti C. A randomised, double-blind, dose-ranging study to evaluate efficacy and safety of three doses of botulinum toxin type A (Botox) for the treatment of spastic foot. Neurological Sciences 2005; Vol. 26, issue 1:26-31. [1590-1874]7069447
46. Martin A, Abogunrin S, Kurth H, Dinet J. Epidemiological, humanistic, and economic burden of illness of lower limb spasticity in adults: a systematic review. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment 2014;10:111-22. 7069449
47. Mayer NH, Whyte J, Wannstedt G, Ellis CA. Comparative impact of 2 botulinum toxin injection techniques for elbow flexor hypertonia. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2008; Vol. 89, issue 5:982-7. 7069451
48. McPherson JJ, Kreimeyer D, Aalderks M, Gallagher T. A comparison of dorsal and volar resting hand splints in the reduction of hypertonus. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 1982; Vol. 36, issue 10:664-70. 7069453
49. Meythaler JM, Guin-Renfroe S, Johnson A, Brunner RM. Prospective assessment of tizanidine for spasticity due to acquired brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2001; Vol. 82, issue 9:1155-63. 7069455
50. Middel B, KuipersUpmeijer H, Bouma J, Staal M, Oenema D, Postma T, et al. Effect of intrathecal baclofen delivered by an implanted programmable pump on health related quality of life in patients with severe spasticity. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 1997; Vol. 63, issue 2:204-9. 7069457
51. Moseley AM. The effect of casting combined with stretching on passive ankle dorsiflexion in adults with traumatic head injuries. Physical Therapy 1997; Vol. 77, issue 3:240-7. [0031-9023: (Print)]7069459
52. Moseley AM, Hassett LM, Leung J, Clare JS, Herbert RD, Harvey LA. Serial casting versus positioning for the treatment of elbow contractures in adults with traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlled trial. Clinical Rehabilitation 2008; Vol. 22, issue 5:406-17. 7069461
53. Nakhostin Ansari N, Naghdi S, Hasson S, Rastgoo M. Efficacy of therapeutic ultrasound and infrared in the management of muscle spasticity. Brain Injury 2009; Vol. 23, issue 7-8:632-8. 7069463
54. NCT00776048. Validation of an obstacle course used in patients with muscle tightness. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/study/NCT00776048 Date first received: 20 October 2008. 7069465
55. NCT00900666. Efficacy of botulinum toxin Injections in the rectus femoris to treat stiff knee gait following acquired brain injury. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00900666 Date first received: 13 May 2009. 7069467
56. Pagano MA, Frerreiro ME, Herskovits. Study using Tizanidina and Baclofen in patients with chronic spasticity. Revista Neurológica Argentina 1990; Vol. 15, issue 1:27-33. 7069469
57. Penn RD. Intrathecal baclofen for severe spasticity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1988; Vol. 531:157-66. 7069471
58. Richardson D, Sheean G, Werring D, Desai M, Edwards S, Greenwood R, et al. Evaluating the role of botulinum toxin in the management of focal hypertonia in adults. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 2000; Vol. 69, issue 4:499-506. 7069473
59. Thompson AJ, Richardson D, Sheehan G, Desai M, Werring D, Edwards S, et al. Evaluating the role of botulinum toxin type A in adults with focal spasticity. European Journal of Neurology 1999;6(Suppl 4):S75. 7069474
60. Roussan M, Terrence C, Fromm G. Baclofen versus diazepam for the treatment of spasticity and long-term follow-up of baclofen therapy. Pharmatherapeutica 1985; Vol. 4, issue 5:278-84. 7069476
61. Sahuquillo J, Robles A, Poca A, Ballabriga A, Mercadal J, Secades JJ. A controlled, double-blind, randomized pilot clinical trial of nicardipine as compared with a placebo in patients with moderate or severe head injury. Revista de Neurologia 2000; Vol. 30, issue 5:401-8. 7069478
62. Simpson DM, Alexander DN, O'Brien CF, Tagliati M, Aswad AS, Leon JM, et al. Botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of upper extremity spasticity: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 1996; Vol. 46, issue 5:1306-10. 7069480
63. Simpson DM, Gracies JM, Yablon SA, Barbano R, Brashear A, BoNT/TZD Study Team. Botulinum neurotoxin versus tizanidine in upper limb spasticity: a placebo-controlled study. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 2009; Vol. 80, issue 4:380-5. 7069482
64. Smith SJ, Ellis E, White S, Moore AP. A double-blind placebo-controlled study of botulinum toxin in upper limb spasticity after stroke or head injury. Clinical Rehabilitation 2000; Vol. 14, issue 1:5-13. 7069484
65. Snow BJ, Tsui JK, Bhatt MH, Varelas M, Hashimoto SA, Calne DB. Treatment of spasticity with botulinum toxin: a double-blind study. Annals of Neurology 1990; Vol. 28, issue 4:512-5. [0364-5134: (Print)]7069486
66. Suputtitada A, Suwanwela NC. The lowest effective dose of botulinum A toxin in adult patients with upper limb spasticity. Disability & Rehabilitation 2005; Vol. 27, issue 4:176-84. 7069488
67. Thibaut A, Deltombe T, Wannez S, Gosseries O, Ziegler E, Dieni C, et al. Impact of soft splints on upper limb spasticity in chronic patients with disorders of consciousness: a randomized, single-blind, controlled trial. Brain Injury 2015;29:830-6. 7069490
68. Van Schaeybroeck P, Nuttin B, Lagae L, Schrijvers E, Borghgraef C, Feys P. Intrathecal baclofen for intractable cerebral spasticity: a prospective placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Neurosurgery 2000; Vol. 46, issue 3:603-9. 7069492
69. Yelnik AP, Colle FM, Bonan IV, Vicaut E. Treatment of shoulder pain in spastic hemiplegia by reducing spasticity of the subscapular muscle: a randomised, double blind, placebo controlled study of botulinum toxin A. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2007; Vol. 78, issue 8:845-8. 7069494
70. Zhao W, Wang C, Li Z, Chen L, Li J, Cui W, et al. Efficacy and safety of transcutaneous electrical acupoint stimulation to treat muscle spasticity following brain injury: a double-blinded, multicenter, randomized controlled trial. PLoS One 2015;2:e0116976. 7069496
71. A phase III, multicentre, double-blind, prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study, assessing the efficacy and safety of Dysport® used for the treatment of lower-limb spasticity in adult subjects with hemiparesis due to stroke or traumatic brain injury. www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/search?query=eudract_number:2009-015868-34 Date first received: 15 February 2011. 7069498
72. A phase III prospective, multi-center, randomised evaluator-blinded study to compare neuromuscular junction (NMJ) targeted technique for Dysport injectives in upper limb spasticity post stroke or traumatic brain injury to the technique used in clinical practice. www.clinicaltrialsregister.eu/ctr-search/trial/2011-005375-16/results Date first received: 24 September 2012. 7069500
73. Gracies JM, Esquenazi A, Brashear A, Edgley SR, O'Dell M, Hedera P, et al. Poster 288. Efficacy and safety of repeated abobotulinumtoxinA injections in adults with lower limb spasticity. PM & R: the Journal of Injury, Function, and Rehabilitation 2016;8:S254. 7069502
74. Ipsen. Dysport® adult lower limb spasticity follow-on study. clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01251367 Date first received: 1 December 2010. 7069503
75. Rasras S. Comparative efficacy of cyproheptadine and baclofen on spasticity in patients with head trauma. en.search.irct.ir/view/17738 Date first received: 13 May 2014. 7069506
76. Rasras S, Fallahpour S, Zeinali M, Soltani A, Bahrami R, Teymoori AR, et al. Survey effect of cyproheptadine-baclofen and cyproheptadine baclofen-thizanidine regimens on spasticity in patients with traumatic brain injury. Asian Journal of Medical and Pharmaceutical Researches 2014;4:142-6. 7069505
77. NCT02052024. Myobloc atrophy study (MAS). Clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT02052024 Date first received: 31 January 2014. 7069508
78. ACTRN12615000821594. Effectiveness of combining serial casting and botulinum toxin for the management of ankle contractures after traumatic brain injury: a randomised controlled study. www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=365685 Date first received: 10 August 2015. 7069510
79. Ada L, O'Dwyer N, O'Neill E. Relation between spasticity, weakness and contracture of the elbow flexors and upper limb activity after stroke: an observational study. Disability and Rehabilitation 2006; Vol. 28, issue 13-14:891-7.
80. Ada L, Dorsch S, Canning CG. Strengthening interventions increase strength and improve activity after stroke: a systematic review. Australian Journal of Physiotherapy 2006; Vol. 52, issue 4:241-8.
81. Ade-Hall R, Moore P. Botulinum toxin type A in the treatment of lower limb spasticity in cerebral palsy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2000, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001408]
82. Allison SC, Abraham LD. Correlation of quantitative measures with the modified Ashworth Scale in the assessment of plantar flexor spasticity in patients with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurology 1995; Vol. 242, issue 10:699-706.
83. Amatya B, Khan F, La ML, Demetrios M, Wade DT. Non pharmacological interventions for spasticity in multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009974.pub2]
84. Ashworth NL, Satkunam LE, Deforge D. Treatment for spasticity in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/motor neuron disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004156.pub4]
85. Aydin G, Tomruk S, Keleş I, Demir S, Orkun S. Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation versus baclofen in spasticity: clinical and electrophysiologic comparison. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 2005; Vol. 84, issue 8:584-92. [0894-9115]
86. Baker JA, Pereira G. The efficacy of botulinum toxin A on improving ease of care in the upper and lower limbs: a systematic review and meta-analysis using the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation approach. Clinical Rehabilitation 2015;29:731-40.
87. Becker R, Alberti O, Bauer BL. Continuous intrathecal baclofen infusion in severe spasticity after traumatic or hypoxic brain injury. Journal of Neurology 1997; Vol. 244, issue 3:160-6.
88. Bragge P, Synnot A, Maas AI, Menon DK, Cooper DJ, Rosenfeld JV, et al. A state of the science overview of randomised controlled trials evaluating acute management of moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma 2016;33(16):1461-78. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2015.4233]
89. Brashear A, Zafonte R, Corcoran M, Galvez-Jimenez N, Gracies JM, Gordon MF, et al. Inter- and intrarater reliability of the Ashworth Scale and the Disability Assessment Scale in patients with upper-limb poststroke spasticity. Archives of Physical and Medical Rehabilitation 2002;83:1349-54.
90. Brashear A, Elovic E. Why is spasticity important?. Spasticity: Diagnosis and Management. New York (NY): Demos Medical Publishing, 2016:3-4.
91. Brazinova A, Rehorcikova V, Taylor MS, Buckova V, Majdan M, Psota M, et al. Epidemiology of Traumatic Brain Injury in Europe: A Living Systematic Review. Journal of Neurotrauma 2016:Epub ahead of print. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2015.4126]
92. Dashtipour K, Chen JJ, Walker HW, Lee MY. Systematic literature review of abobotulinumtoxinA in clinical trials for lower limb spasticity. Medicine 2016;95:e2468.
93. Demetrios M, Khan F, Turner-Stokes L, Brand C, McSweeney S. Multidisciplinary rehabilitation following botulinum toxin and other focal intramuscular treatment for post-stroke spasticity. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 6. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009689.pub2]
94. Dong Y, Wu T, Hu X, Wang T. Efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin type A for upper limb spasticity after stroke or traumatic brain injury: a systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. European Journal of Physical Rehabilitation Medicine 2017;53:256-67.
95. Duarte GS, Castelão M, Rodrigues FB, Marques RE, Ferreira J, Sampaio C, et al. Botulinum toxin type A versus botulinum toxin type B for cervical dystonia. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2016, Issue 10. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004314.pub3]
96. Esquenazi A. Improvements in healthcare and cost benefits associated with botulinum toxin treatment of spasticity and muscle overactivity. European Journal of Neurology 2006; Vol. 13 (Suppl 4):27-34.
97. Fleuren JFM, Voerman GE, Erren-Wolters CV, Snoek GJ, Rietman JS, Hermens HJ, et al. Stop using the Ashworth Scale for the assessment of spasticity. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2010; Vol. 81, issue 1:46-52.
98. Francis HP, Wade DT, Turner-Stokes L, Kingswell RS, Dott CS, Coxon EA. Does reducing spasticity translate into functional benefit? An exploratory meta-analysis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2004; Vol. 75, issue 11:1547-51.
99. Giovannelli M, Borriello G, Castri P, Prosperini L, Pozzilli C. Early physiotherapy after injection of botulinum toxin increases the beneficial effects on spasticity in patients with multiple sclerosis. Clinical Rehabilitation. London: SAGE PUBLICATIONS, INC., 2007; Vol. 21, issue 4:331-7. [02692155]
100. Guyatt GH, Oxman AD, Kunz R, Brozek J, Alonso-Coello P, Rind D, et al. GRADE guidelines 6. Rating the quality of evidence - imprecision. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2011;64:1283-93.
101. Hall KM, Hamilton BB, Gordon WA, Zasler ND. Characteristics and comparisons of functional assessment indices: disability rating scale, functional independence measure, and functional assessment measure. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 1993;8:60-74.
102. Haugh AB, Pandyan AD, Johnson GR. A systematic review of the Tardieu Scale for the measurement of spasticity. Disability and Rehabilitation 2006; Vol. 28, issue 15:899-907.
103. Higgins JP, Altman DG, Gøtzsche PC, Jüni P, Moher D, Oxman AD, et al. Cochrane Bias Methods Group, Cochrane Statistical Methods Group. The Cochrane Collaboration's tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ 2011;343:d5928.
104. Hoare BJ, Wallen MA, Imms C, Villanueva E, Rawicki HB, Carey L. Botulinum toxin A as an adjunct to treatment in the management of the upper limb in children with spastic cerebral palsy (update). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, Issue 1. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003469.pub4]
105. Hsieh JTC, Wolfe DL, McIntyre A, Janzen S, Townson AF, Short C, et al. Spasticity following spinal cord injury. In: Eng JJ, Teasell RW, Miller WC, Wolfe DL, Townson AF, Hsieh JTC, et al. editor(s). Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation Evidence, Version 4.0. Vancouver (BC): SCIRE Project, 2012.
106. Jennett B, Bond M. Assessment of outcome after severe brain damage. Lancet 1975;1:480-4.
107. Keith RA, Granger CV, Hamilton BB, Sherwin FS. The functional independence measure: a new tool for rehabilitation. Advances in Clinical Rehabilitation 1987;1:6-18.
108. Khan F, Baguley IJ, Cameron ID. Rehabilitation after traumatic brain injury. Medical Journal of Australia. 2003/03/14 2003; Vol. 178, issue 6:290-5.
109. Kiresuk TJ, Smith A, Cardillo JE. Goal Attainment Scaling: Applications, Theory, and Measurement. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1994.
110. Kwakkel G, Wagenaar R, Twisk J, Lankhorst G, Koetsier J. Intensity of leg and arm training after primary middle-cerebral-artery stroke: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999; Vol. 354:191-6.
111. Lance J. Pathophysiology of spasticity and clinical experience with baclofen. In: Lance JWFR, Young RR, Koella WP editor(s). Spasticity: Disordered Motor Control. Chicago (IL): Year Book Medical Publishers, 1980.
112. Law M, Baptiste S, Carswell A, McColl MA, Polatajko H, Pollock N. Canadian Occupational Performance Measure. Canada: CAOT Publications, 2000.
113. Lindsay C, Pandyan AD. Pharmacological interventions other than botulinum toxin for spasticity after stroke. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD010362.pub2]
114. Maas AI, Stocchetti N, Bullock R. Moderate and severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Lancet Neurology. 2008/07/19 2008; Vol. 7, issue 8:728-41.
115. Maas AIR, Steyerberg EW, Marmarou A, McHugh GS, Lingsma HF, Butcher I, et al. IMPACT recommendations for improving the design and analysis of clinical trials in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Neurotherapeutics 2010;7:127-34.
116. Malhotra S, Pandyan AD, Day CR, Jones PW, Hermens H. Spasticity, an impairment that is poorly defined and poorly measured. Clinical Rehabilitation 2009;23:651-8.
117. Manchester D, Hodgkinson A, Casey T. Prolonged, severe behavioural disturbance following traumatic brain injury: what can be done?. Brain Injury 1997;11:605-17.
118. McGuire J. Epidemiology of spasticity in the adult and child. In: Brashear A editor(s). Spasticity: Diagnosis and Management. 2nd Edition. New York (NY): Demos Medical Publishing, 2016.
119. Mehrholz J, Major Y, Meissner D, Sandi-Gahun S, Koch R, Pohl M. The influence of contractures and variation in measurement stretching velocity on the reliability of the Modified Ashworth Scale in patients with severe brain injury. Clinical Rehabilitation 2005; Vol. 19, issue 1:63-72.
120. Meythaler JM, Guin-Renfroe S, Johnson A, Brunner RM. Prospective assessment of tizanidine for spasticity due to acquired brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2001; Vol. 82, issue 9:1155-63.
121. Morris S. Ashworth and Tardieu Scales: their Clinical Relevance for Measuring Spasticity in Adult and Paediatric Neurological Populations. Physical Therapy Reviews 2002; Vol. 7, issue 1:53-62.
122. Mortenson PA, Eng JJ. The use of casts in the management of joint mobility and hypertonia following brain injury in adults: a systematic review. Physical Therapy 2003;83:648-58.
123. Nair KPS, Marsden J. The management of spasticity in adults. BMJ 2014;349:g4737.
124. ®) in the treatment of adult patients with upper limb spasticity due to traumatic brain injury. PM & R: the Journal of Injury, Function, and Rehabilitation 2015;7:S103.
125. Olver J, Esquenazi A, Fung VSC, Singer BJ, Ward AB. Botulinum toxin assessment, intervention and aftercare for lower limb disorders of movement and muscle tone in adults: international consensus statement. European Journal of Neurology 2010;17:57-73.
126. Pandyan AD, Johnson GR, Price CI, Curless RH, Barnes MP, Rodgers H. A review of the properties and limitations of the Ashworth and modified Ashworth Scales as measures of spasticity. Clinical Rehabilitation 1999; Vol. 13, issue 5:373-83.
127. Pandyan A, Gregoric M, Barnes M, Wood D, Van Wijck F, Burridge J, et al. Spasticity: clinical perceptions, neurological realities and meaningful measurement. Disability and Rehabilitation 2005; Vol. 27:2-6.
128. Parke B, Penn RD, Savoy SM, Corcos D. Functional outcome after delivery of intrathecal baclofen. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1989; Vol. 70, issue 1:30-2.
129. Patrick E, Ada L. The Tardieu Scale differentiates contracture from spasticity whereas the Ashworth Scale is confounded by it. Clinical Rehabilitation 2006;20:173-82.
130. Pierson SH, Katz DI, Tarsy D. Botulinum toxin A in the treatment of spasticity: functional implications and patient selection. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 1996; Vol. 77, issue 7:717-21.
131. Royal College of Physicians. Spasticity in Adults: Management using Botulinum Toxin: National Guidelines. London (UK): Royal College of Physicians, 2009.
132. The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration. Review Manager (RevMan). Copenhagen: The Nordic Cochrane Centre, The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011.
133. Ryan R, Hill S. How to GRADE the quality of the evidence. Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group, Version 3.0 December 2016. cccrg.cochrane.org/sites/cccrg.cochrane.org/files/public/uploads/how_to_grade_revising_1_december_2016.pdf (accessed prior to 25 October 2017).
134. Schünemann HJ, Oxman AD, Higgins JPT, Vist GE, Glasziou P, Guyatt GH. Chapter 11: Presenting results and 'Summary of findings' tables. In: Higgins JP, Green S, editor(s). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.1.0 (updated March 2011). The Cochrane Collaboration, 2011. Available from handbook.cochrane.org.
135. Shakespeare D, Boggild M, Young CA. Anti-spasticity agents for multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2003, Issue 4. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001332; CD001332]
136. Singer BJ, Jegasothy GM, Singer KP, Allison GT, Dunne JW. Incidence of ankle contracture after moderate to severe acquired brain injury. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2004/09/18 2004; Vol. 85, issue 9:1465-9.
137. Summers CR, Ivins B, Schwab KA. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: an epidemiologic overview. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 2009; Vol. 76, issue 2:105-10.
138. Taricco M, Adone R, Pagliacci C, Telaro E. Pharmacological interventions for spasticity following spinal cord injury. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2000, Issue 2. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001131]
139. Teasdale G, Jennett B. Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness. Lancet 1974;304:814.
140. Wedekind C, Lippert-Grüner M. Long-term outcome in severe traumatic brain injury is significantly influenced by brainstem involvement. Brain Injuries 2005;19:681-4.
141. World Health Organization. International Classification of Functioning, Disability & Health. apps.who.int/classifications/icfbrowser/ (accessed 2 July 2010).
142. Williams G, Banky M, Olver J. Severity and distribution of spasticity does not limit mobility or influence compensatory strategies following traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury 2015;29(10):1232-8.
143. Williams G, Banky M, Olver J. Distribution of lower limb spasticity does not influence mobility outcome following traumatic brain injury: an observational study. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 2015;30(5):E49-57.
144. Wood RL, McCrea JD, Wood LM, Merriman RN. Clinical and cost effectiveness of post-acute neurobehavioural rehabilitation. Brain Injury 1999;13:69-88.
145. Wood L, Egger M, Gluud LL, Schulz K, Jüni P, Altman DG, et al. Empirical evidence of bias in treatment effect estimates in controlled trials with different interventions and outcomes: meta-epidemiological study. BMJ 2008;336:601-5.
146. Yelnik AP, Simon O, Bensmail D, Chaleat-Valayer E, Decq P, Dehail P, et al. Drug treatments for spasticity. Annals of Physical & Rehabilitation Medicine 2009; Vol. 52, issue 10:746-56.