The Cardiovascular Effects of Cocaine

Journal of the American College of Cardiology

Volumn 70, Issue 1, 2017, Pages 101-113

  Havakuk, Ofer ^a,b   Rezkalla, Shereif H ^c   Kloner, Robert A ^a,d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

^c MARSHFIELD CLINIC   (United States)

^d Medical Research Institute   (United States)

Author keywords

acute myocardial infarction; beta blockers; cardiomyopathy; cocaine cardiotoxicity; drug addiction

Indexed keywords

BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CLOPIDOGREL; COCAINE; ESMOLOL; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; LABETALOL; LEVAMISOLE; LIDOCAINE; METHADONE; METOPROLOL; NITRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; PHENTOLAMINE; PROPRANOLOL; TISSUE PLASMINOGEN ACTIVATOR; VERAPAMIL;

AORTIC DISSECTION; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CARDIOTOXICITY; CARDIOVASCULAR EFFECT; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; COCAINE DEPENDENCE; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG METABOLISM; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART FAILURE; HEART INFARCTION; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HEART VENTRICLE ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; MYOCARDITIS; NONHUMAN; PHARMACODYNAMICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; REVIEW; SEIZURE; SHOCK; STENT THROMBOSIS; TACHYCARDIA; THORAX PAIN; VASCULITIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CHEMICALLY INDUCED; COMPLICATION; DRUG DEPENDENCE; GLOBAL HEALTH; MORBIDITY;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; COCAINE; GLOBAL HEALTH; HUMANS; MORBIDITY; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS;

EID: 85034098574     PISSN: 07351097     EISSN: 15583597     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2017.05.014     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Gärtner, G., Die Entdeckung der Lokalanästhesie. 1919, Der neue Tag, Vienna, Austria.
2. Cartmell, L.W., Aufderheide, A.C., Springfield, A., Arriaza, B., The frequency and antiquity of prehistoric coca-leaf-chewing practices in Northern Chile: radioimmunoassay of a cocaine metabolite in human-mummy hair. Lat Am Antiq 2 (1991), 260–268.
3. Freud, S., A contribution to the knowledge of the effect of cocaine, Vienna Medical Weekly, January, 1885. Byck, R., (eds.) Cocaine Papers, 1974, Stonehill Publishing Co., New York, NY.
4. Hammond WA. Coca: its preparations and their therapeutical qualities with some remarks on the so-called “cocaine habit.” In: Byck R, editor. Cocaine Papers. New York, NY, 1974:177–93.
5. Drugs, brains, and behavior: the science of addiction. National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse. 2014. National Institutes of Health Pub No. 14-5605. Available at: https://www.drugabuse.gov/sites/default/files/soa_2014.pdf. Accessed May 10, 2017.
6. Wohler, V., Fortsetzung der Untersuchungen über die Coca und das Cocaïn. Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie 121 (1862), 372–375.
7. Inaba, T., Stewart, D.J., Kalow, W., Metabolism of cocaine in man. Clin Pharmacol Ther 23 (1978), 547–552.
8. Ambre, J., Fischman, M., Ruo, T.I., Urinary excretion of ecgonine methyl ester, a major metabolite of cocaine in humans. J Anal Toxicol 8 (1984), 23–25.
9. Perez-Reyes, M., Di Guiseppi, S., Ondrusek, G., Jeffcoat, A.R., Cook, C.E., Free-base cocaine smoking. Clin Pharmacol Ther 32 (1982), 459–465.
10. Jufer, R.A., Wstadik, A., Walsh, S.L., Levine, B.S., Cone, E.J., Elimination of cocaine and metabolites in plasma, saliva, and urine following repeated oral administration to human volunteers. J Anal Toxicol 24 (2000), 467–477.
11. Gay, G.R., Clinical management of acute and chronic cocaine poisoning. Ann Emerg Med 11 (1982), 562–572.
12. Hawks, R.L., Kopin, I.J., Colburn, R.W., Thoa, N.B., Norcocaine: a pharmacologically active metabolite of cocaine found in brain. Life Sci 15 (1974), 2189–2195.
13. Jones, S.R., Garris, P.A., Wightman, R.M., Different effects of cocaine and nomifensine on dopamine uptake in the caudate-putamen and nucleus accumbens. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 274 (1995), 396–403.
14. Venton, B.J., Seipel, A.T., Phillips, P.E., et al. Cocaine increases dopamine release by mobilization of a synapsin-dependent reserve pool. J Neurosci 26 (2006), 3206–3209.
15. Egashira, K., Morgan, K.G., Morgan, J.P., Effects of cocaine on excitation-contraction coupling of aortic smooth muscle from the ferret. J Clin Invest 87 (1991), 1322–1328.
16. Wilbert-Lampen, U., Seliger, C., Zilker, T., Arendt, R.M., Cocaine increases the endothelial release of immunoreactive endothelin and its concentrations in human plasma and urine: reversal by coincubation with σ-receptor antagonists. Circulation 98 (1998), 385–390.
17. Havranek, E.P., Nademanee, K., Grayburn, P.A., Eichhorn, E.J., Endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation is impaired in cocaine arteriopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 28 (1996), 1168–1174.
18. Mo, W., Singh, A.K., Arruda, J.A., Dunea, G., Role of nitric oxide in cocaine-induced acute hypertension. Am J Hypertens 11 (1998), 708–714.
19. Perreault, C.L., Morgan, K.G., Morgan, J.P., Effects of cocaine on intracellular calcium handling in cardiac and vascular smooth muscle. NIDA Res Monogr 108 (1991), 139–153.
20. Su, J., Li, J., Li, W., Altura, B., Altura, B., Cocaine induces apoptosis in primary cultured rat aortic vascular smooth muscle cells: possible relationship to aortic dissection, atherosclerosis, and hypertension. Int J Toxicol 23 (2004), 233–237.
21. Ramondo, A.B., Mistrorigo, F., Angelini, A., Intimal hyperplasia and cystic medial necrosis as substrate of acute coronary syndrome in a cocaine abuser: an in vivo/ex vivo pathological correlation. Heart, 95, 2009, 82.
22. Wilmink, T.B., Quick, C.R., Day, N.E., The association between cigarette smoking and abdominal aortic aneurysms. J Vasc Surg 30 (1999), 1099–1105.
23. Lange, R.A., Cigarroa, R.G., Yancy, C.W. Jr., et al. Cocaine-induced coronary-artery vasoconstriction. N Engl J Med 321 (1989), 1557–1562.
24. Rezkalla, S.H., Mazza, J.J., Kloner, R.A., Tillema, V., Chang, S.H., Effects of cocaine on human platelets in healthy subjects. Am J Cardiol 72 (1993), 243–246.
25. Siegel, A.J., Mendelson, J.H., Sholar, M.B., et al. Effect of cocaine usage on C-reactive protein, von Willebrand factor, and fibrinogen. Am J Cardiol 89 (2002), 1133–1135.
26. Moliterno, D.J., Lange, R.A., Gerard, R.D., Willard, J.E., Lackner, C., Hillis, L.D., Influence of intranasal cocaine on plasma constituents associated with endogenous thrombosis and thrombolysis. Am J Med 96 (1994), 492–496.
27. Kolodgie, F.D., Virmani, R., Cornhill, J.F., Herderick, E.E., Smialek, J., Increase in atherosclerosis and adventitial mast cells in cocaine abusers: an alternative mechanism of cocaine-associated coronary vasospasm and thrombosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 17 (1991), 1553–1560.
28. Lucena, J., Blanco, M., Jurado, C., et al. Cocaine-related sudden death: a prospective investigation in south-west Spain. Eur Heart J 31 (2010), 318–329.
29. Steinhauer, J.R., Caulfield, J.B., Spontaneous coronary artery dissection associated with cocaine use: a case report and brief review. Cardiovasc Pathol 10 (2001), 141–145.
30. Isner, J.M., Estes, N.A. III, Thompson, P.D., et al. Acute cardiac events temporally related to cocaine abuse. N Engl J Med 315 (1986), 1438–1443.
31. Remondino, A., Kwon, S.H., Communal, C., et al. β-Adrenergic receptor–stimulated apoptosis in cardiac myocytes is mediated by reactive oxygen species/c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase–dependent activation of the mitochondrial pathway. Circ Res 92 (2003), 136–138.
32. Nahas, G.G., Trouvé, R., Manger, W.M., Cocaine, catecholamines and cardiac toxicity. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand Suppl 94 (1990), 77–81.
33. Billman, G.E., Hoskins, R.S., Cocaine-induced ventricular fibrillation: protection afforded by the calcium antagonist verapamil. FASEB J 2 (1988), 2990–2995.
34. Shih, R.D., Hollander, J.E., Burstein, J.L., Nelson, L.S., Hoffman, R.S., Quick, A.M., Clinical safety of lidocaine in patients with cocaine-associated myocardial infarction. Ann Emerg Med 26 (1995), 702–706.
35. Ferreira, S., Crumb, W.J. Jr., Carlton, C.G., Clarkson, C.W., Effects of cocaine and its major metabolites on the HERG-encoded potassium channel. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 299 (2001), 220–226.
36. O'Leary, M.E., Hancox, J.C., Role of voltage-gated sodium, potassium and calcium channels in the development of cocaine-associated cardiac arrhythmias. Br J Clin Pharmacol 69 (2010), 427–442.
37. Clarkson, C.W., Xu, Y.Q., Chang, C., Follmer, C.H., Analysis of the ionic basis for cocaine's biphasic effect on action potential duration in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. J Mol Cell Cardiol 28 (1996), 667–678.
38. Crandall, C.G., Vongpatanasin, W., Victor, R.G., Mechanism of cocaine-induced hyperthermia in humans. Ann Intern Med 136 (2002), 785–791.
39. Crumb, W.J. Jr., Clarkson, C.W., Characterization of cocaine-induced block of cardiac sodium channels. Biophys J 57 (1990), 589–599.
40. Hoffman, R.S., Treatment of patients with cocaine-induced arrhythmias: bringing the bench to the bedside. Br J Clin Pharmacol 69 (2010), 448–457.
41. El Mazloum, R., Snenghi, R., Zorzi, A., et al. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest after acute cocaine intoxication associated with Brugada ECG patterns: insights into physiopathologic mechanisms and implications for therapy. Int J Cardiol 195 (2015), 245–249.
42. Álvarez Díaz, H., Marińo Callejo, A.I., García Rodríguez, J.F., Rodríguez Pazos, L., Gómez Buela, I., Bermejo Barrera, A.M., ANCA-positive vasculitis induced by levamisole-adulterated cocaine and nephrotic syndrome: the kidney as an unusual target. Am J Case Rep 14 (2013), 557–561.
43. Karch, S.B., Mari, F., Bartolini, V., Bertol, E., Aminorex poisoning in cocaine abusers. Int J Cardiol 158 (2012), 344–346.
44. Albuquerque, M.L., Kurth, C.D., Cocaine constricts immature cerebral arterioles by a local anesthetic mechanism. Eur J Pharmacol 249 (1993), 215–220.
45. Volkow, N.D., Mullani, N., Gould, K.L., Adler, S., Krajewski, K., Cerebral blood flow in chronic cocaine users: a study with positron emission tomography. Br J Psychiatry 152 (1988), 641–648.
46. Vongpatanasin, W., Mansour, Y., Chavoshan, B., Arbique, D., Victor, R.G., Cocaine stimulates the human cardiovascular system via a central mechanism of action. Circulation 100 (1999), 497–502.
47. Snyder, S.H., Nitric oxide: first in a new class of neurotransmitters. Science 257 (1992), 494–496.
48. Itzhak, Y., Nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitors abolish cocaine-induced toxicity in mice. Neuropharmacology 32 (1993), 1069–1070.
49. Fogo, A., Superdock, K.R., Atkinson, J.B., Severe arteriosclerosis in the kidney of a cocaine addict. Am J Kidney Dis 20 (1992), 513–515.
50. Kibayashi, K., Mastri, A.R., Hirsch, C.S., Cocaine induced intracerebral hemorrhage: analysis of predisposing factors and mechanisms causing hemorrhagic strokes. Hum Pathol 26 (1995), 659–663.
51. Brecklin, C.S., Gopaniuk-Folga, A., Kravetz, T., et al. Prevalence of hypertension in chronic cocaine users. Am J Hypertens 11 (1998), 1279–1283.
52. Braun, B.L., Murray, D.M., Sidney, S., Lifetime cocaine use and cardiovascular characteristics among young adults: the CARDIA study. Am J Public Health 87 (1997), 629–634.
53. Eagle, K.A., Isselbacher, E.M., DeSanctis, R.W., International Registry for Aortic Dissection (IRAD) Investigators. Cocaine-related aortic dissection in perspective. Circulation 105 (2002), 1529–1530.
54. Hsue, P.Y., Salinas, C.L., Bolger, A.F., Benowitz, N.L., Waters, D.D., Acute aortic dissection related to crack cocaine. Circulation 105 (2002), 1592–1595.
55. Daniel, J.C., Huynh, T.T., Zhou, W., et al. Acute aortic dissection associated with use of cocaine. J Vasc Surg 46 (2007), 427–433.
56. Dabbouseh, N.M., Ardelt, A., Cocaine mediated apoptosis of vascular cells as a mechanism for carotid artery dissection leading to ischemic stroke. Med Hypotheses 77 (2011), 201–203.
57. Bigi, M.A., Aslani, A., Mehrpour, M., Effect of chronic cocaine abuse on the elastic properties of aorta. Echocardiography 25 (2008), 308–311.
58. Hall, W.C., Talbert, R.L., Ereshefsky, L., Cocaine abuse and its treatment. Pharmacotherapy 10 (1990), 47–65.
59. Brody, S.L., Slovis, C.M., Wrenn, K.D., Cocaine-related medical problems: consecutive series of 233 patients. Am J Med 88 (1990), 325–331.
60. Mittleman, M.A., Mintzer, D., Maclure, M., Tofler, G.H., Sherwood, J.B., Muller, J.E., Triggering of myocardial infarction by cocaine. Circulation 99 (1999), 2737–2741.
61. Weber, J.E., Shofer, F.S., Larkin, G.L., Kalaria, A.S., Hollander, J.E., Validation of a brief observation period for patients with cocaine-associated chest pain. N Engl J Med 348 (2003), 510–517.
62. Weber, J.E., Chudnofsky, C.R., Boczar, M., Boyer, E.W., Wilkerson, M.D., Hollander, J.E., Cocaine-associated chest pain: how common is myocardial infarction?. Acad Emerg Med 7 (2000), 873–877.
63. Gitter, M.J., Goldsmith, S.R., Dunbar, D.N., Sharkey, S.W., Cocaine and chest pain: clinical features and outcome of patients hospitalized to rule out myocardial infarction. Ann Intern Med 115 (1991), 277–282.
64. Hollander, J.E., Levitt, M.A., Young, G.P., Briglia, E., Wetli, C.V., Gawad, Y., Effect of recent cocaine use on the specificity of cardiac markers for diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J 135 (1998), 245–252.
65. Hollander, J.E., Hoffman, R.S., Gennis, P., et al. Prospective multicenter evaluation of cocaine-associated chest pain. Cocaine Associated Chest Pain (COCHPA) Study Group. Acad Emerg Med 1 (1994), 330–339.
66. Rubin, R.B., Neugarten, J., Cocaine-induced rhabdomyolysis masquerading as myocardial ischemia. Am J Med 86 (1989), 551–553.
67. Tashkin, D.P., Khalsa, M.E., Gorelick, D., et al. Pulmonary status of habitual cocaine smokers. Am Rev Respir Dis 145 (1992), 92–100.
68. Hollander, J.E., Hoffman, R.S., Burstein, J.L., Shih, R.D., Thode, H.C. Jr., Cocaine-associated myocardial infarction. Mortality and complications. Arch Intern Med 155 (1995), 1081–1086.
69. Chase, M., Brown, A.M., Robey, J.L., et al. Application of the TIMI risk score in ED patients with cocaine-associated chest pain. Am J Emerg Med 25 (2007), 1015–1018.
70. Anderson, J.L., Adams, C.D., Antman, E.M., et al. 2012 ACCF/AHA focused update incorporated into the ACCF/AHA 2007 guidelines for the management of patients with unstable angina/non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 61 (2013), e179–e348.
71. Kontos, M.C., Schmidt, K.L., Nicholson, C.S., Ornato, J.P., Jesse, R.L., Tatum, J.L., Myocardial perfusion imaging with technetium-99m sestamibi in patients with cocaine-associated chest pain. Ann Emerg Med 33 (1999), 639–645.
72. Walsh, K., Chang, A.M., Perrone, J., et al. Coronary computerized tomography angiography for rapid discharge of low-risk patients with cocaine-associated chest pain. J Med Toxicol 5 (2009), 111–119.
73. Brogan, W.C. III, Lange, R.A., Kim, A.S., Moliterno, D.J., Hillis, L.D., Alleviation of cocaine-induced coronary vasoconstriction by nitroglycerin. J Am Coll Cardiol 18 (1991), 581–586.
74. Negus, B.H., Willard, J.E., Hillis, L.D., et al. Alleviation of cocaine-induced coronary vasoconstriction with intravenous verapamil. Am J Cardiol 73 (1994), 510–513.
75. Rappolt, R.T. Sr., Gray, G.R., Inaba, D.S., Letter: Propranolol in the treatment of cardiopressor effect of cocaine. N Engl J Med, 295, 1976, 448.
76. Rappolt, R.T., Gay, G.R., Inaba, D.S., Propranolol: a specific antagonist to cocaine. Clin Toxicol 10 (1977), 265–271.
77. Ramoska, E., Sacchetti, A.D., Propranolol-induced hypertension in treatment of cocaine intoxication. Ann Emerg Med 14 (1985), 1112–1113.
78. Catravas, J.D., Waters, I.W., Acute cocaine intoxication in the conscious dog: studies on the mechanism of lethality. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 217 (1981), 350–356.
79. Guinn, M.M., Bedford, J.A., Wilson, M.C., Antagonism of intravenous cocaine lethality in nonhuman primates. Clin Toxicol 16 (1980), 499–508.
80. Vargas, R., Gillis, R.A., Ramwell, P.W., Propranolol promotes cocaine-induced spasm of porcine coronary artery. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 257 (1991), 644–646.
81. Lange, R.A., Cigarroa, R.G., Flores, E.D., et al. Potentiation of cocaine-induced coronary vasoconstriction by beta-adrenergic blockade. Ann Intern Med 112 (1990), 897–903.
82. Boehrer, J.D., Moliterno, D.J., Willard, J.E., Hillis, L.D., Lange, R.A., Influence of labetalol on cocaine-induced coronary vasoconstriction in humans. Am J Med 94 (1993), 608–610.
83. Fareed, F.N., Chan, G., Hoffman, R.S., Death temporally related to the use of a beta adrenergic receptor antagonist in cocaine associated myocardial infarction. J Med Toxicol 3 (2007), 169–172.
84. McCord, J., Jneid, H., Hollander, J.E., et al. Management of cocaine-associated chest pain and myocardial infarction: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Acute Cardiac Care Committee of the Council on Clinical Cardiology. Circulation 117 (2008), 1897–1907.
85. Rangel, C., Shu, R.G., Lazar, L.D., Vittinghoff, E., Hsue, P.Y., Marcus, G.M., Beta-blockers for chest pain associated with recent cocaine use. Arch Intern Med 170 (2010), 874–879.
86. Ibrahim, M., Maselli, D.J., Hasan, R., Safety of β-blockers in the acute management of cocaine-associated chest pain. Am J Emerg Med, 31, 2013, 989.
87. Dattilo, P.B., Hailpern, S.M., Fearon, K., Sohal, D., Nordin, C., β-Blockers are associated with reduced risk of myocardial infarction after cocaine use. Ann Emerg Med 51 (2008), 117–125.
88. Hoskins, M.H., Leleiko, R.M., Ramos, J.J., Sola, S., Caneer, P.M., Khan, B.V., Effects of labetalol on hemodynamic parameters and soluble biomarkers of inflammation in acute coronary syndrome in patients with active cocaine use. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 15 (2010), 47–52.
89. Sofuoglu, M., Brown, S., Babb, D.A., Pentel, P.R., Hatsukami, D.K., Effects of labetalol treatment on the physiological and subjective response to smoked cocaine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 65 (2000), 255–259.
90. Sand, I.C., Brody, S.L., Wrenn, K.D., Slovis, C.M., Experience with esmolol for the treatment of cocaine-associated cardiovascular complications. Am J Emerg Med 9 (1991), 161–163.
91. McKee, S.A., Applegate, R.J., Hoyle, J.R., Sacrinty, M.T., Kutcher, M.A., Sane, D.C., Cocaine use is associated with an increased risk of stent thrombosis after percutaneous coronary intervention. Am Heart J 154 (2007), 159–164.
92. Mongeon, F.P., Rinfret, S., Left main coronary artery occlusion with myocardial infarction in a cocaine user. Successful angioplasty with a drug-eluting stent. Can J Cardiol 24 (2008), e30–e32.
93. Shah, P., Vasudev, R., Abuarqoub, A.H., Shamoon, F., Cocaine-induced very late stent thrombosis. BMJ Case Rep, 2016, 2016.
94. Price, F.W., Leakey, A.B., Grave and prolonged cardiac failure following the use of cocaine in dental surgery. Lancet 177 (1911), 797–798.
95. Hale, S.L., Alker, K.J., Rezkalla, S., Figures, G., Kloner, R.A., Adverse effects of cocaine on cardiovascular dynamics, myocardial blood flow, and coronary artery diameter in an experimental model. Am Heart J 118 (1989), 927–933.
96. Pitts, W.R., Vongpatanasin, W., Cigarroa, J.E., Hillis, L.D., Lange, R.A., Effects of the intracoronary infusion of cocaine on left ventricular systolic and diastolic function in humans. Circulation 97 (1998), 1270–1273.
97. Hoffman, C.K., Goodman, P.C., Pulmonary edema in cocaine smokers. Radiology 172 (1989), 463–465.
98. Bertolet, B.D., Freund, G., Martin, C.A., Perchalski, D.L., Williams, C.M., Pepine, C.J., Unrecognized left ventricular dysfunction in an apparently healthy cocaine abuse population. Clin Cardiol 13 (1990), 323–328.
99. Om, A., Warner, M., Sabri, N., Cecich, L., Vetrovec, G., Frequency of coronary artery disease and left ventricle dysfunction in cocaine users. Am J Cardiol 69 (1992), 1549–1552.
100. Arora, S., Alfayoumi, F., Srinivasan, V., Transient left ventricular apical ballooning after cocaine use: is catecholamine cardiotoxicity the pathologic link?. Mayo Clin Proc 81 (2006), 829–832.
101. Perreault, C.L., Hague, N.L., Ransil, B.J., Morgan, J.P., The effects of cocaine on intracellular Ca2+ handling and myofilament Ca2+ responsiveness of ferret ventricular myocardium. Br J Pharmacol 101 (1990), 679–685.
102. Schulze, J.J., Knops, J., Effects of flecainide on contractile force and electrophysiological parameters in cardiac muscle. Arzneimittelforschung 32 (1982), 1025–1029.
103. Isabelle, M., Monteil, C., Moritz, F., et al. Role of α1-adrenoreceptors in cocaine-induced NADPH oxidase expression and cardiac dysfunction. Cardiovasc Res 67 (2005), 699–704.
104. Frustaci, A., Russo, M.A., Morgante, E., et al. Oxidative myocardial damage in human cocaine-related cardiomyopathy. Eur J Heart Fail 17 (2015), 283–290.
105. Mosunjac, M.I., Sundstrom, J.B., Heninger, M., Ansari, A.A., Mosunjac, M.B., Combined pathological effects of cocaine abuse and HIV infection on the cardiovascular system: an autopsy study of 187 cases from the Fulton County Medical Examiner's office. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 29 (2008), 9–13.
106. Virmani, R., Robinowitz, M., Smialek, J.E., Smyth, D.F., Cardiovascular effects of cocaine: an autopsy study of 40 patients. Am Heart J 115 (1988), 1068–1076.
107. Gradman, A.H., Cardiac effects of cocaine: a review. Yale J Biol Med 61 (1988), 137–147.
108. Bauman, J.L., Grawe, J.J., Winecoff, A.P., Hariman, R.J., Cocaine-related sudden cardiac death: a hypothesis correlating basic science and clinical observations. J Clin Pharmacol 34 (1994), 902–911.
109. Shen, M.J., Choi, E.K., Tan, A.Y., et al. Neural mechanisms of atrial arrhythmias. Nat Rev Cardiol 9 (2011), 30–39.
110. Friedman, R.A., Kearney, D.L., Moak, J.P., Fenrich, A.L., Perry, J.C., Persistence of ventricular arrhythmia after resolution of occult myocarditis in children and young adults. J Am Coll Cardiol 24 (1994), 780–783.
111. Wang, R.Y., pH-dependent cocaine-induced cardiotoxicity. Am J Emerg Med 17 (1999), 364–369.
112. Winecoff, A.P., Hariman, R.J., Grawe, J.J., Wang, Y., Bauman, J.L., Reversal of the electrocardiographic effects of cocaine by lidocaine. Part 1. Comparison with sodium bicarbonate and quinidine. Pharmacotherapy 14 (1994), 698–703.
113. Xu, Y.Q., Crumb, W.J. Jr., Clarkson, C.W., Cocaethylene, a metabolite of cocaine and ethanol, is a potent blocker of cardiac sodium channels. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 271 (1994), 319–325.
114. O'Leary, M.E., Inhibition of HERG potassium channels by cocaethylene: a metabolite of cocaine and ethanol. Cardiovasc Res 53 (2002), 59–67.
115. Krantz, M.J., Rowan, S.B., Mehler, P.S., Cocaine-related torsade de pointes in a methadone maintenance patient. J Addict Dis 24 (2005), 53–60.
116. Kimura, S., Bassett, A.L., Xi, H., Myerburg, R.J., Early afterdepolarizations and triggered activity induced by cocaine. A possible mechanism of cocaine arrhythmogenesis. Circulation 85 (1992), 2227–2235.
117. Kosten, T.R., Kleber, H.D., Rapid death during cocaine abuse: a variant of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome?. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 14 (1988), 335–346.
118. Marzuk, P.M., Tardiff, K., Leon, A.C., et al. Ambient temperature and mortality from unintentional cocaine overdose. JAMA 279 (1998), 1795–1800.
119. Akhtar, M.J., al-Nozha, M., al-Harthi, S., Nouh, M.S., Electrocardiographic abnormalities in patients with heat stroke. Chest 104 (1993), 411–414.
120. Beckman, K.J., Parker, R.B., Hariman, R.J., Gallastegui, J.L., Javaid, J.I., Bauman, J.L., Hemodynamic and electrophysiological actions of cocaine. Effects of sodium bicarbonate as an antidote in dogs. Circulation 83 (1991), 1799–1807.
121. Grawe, J.J., Hariman, R.J., Winecoff, A.P., Fischer, J.H., Bauman, J.L., Reversal of the electrocardiographic effects of cocaine by lidocaine. Part 2. Concentration-effect relationships. Pharmacotherapy 14 (1994), 704–711.
122. DeWitt, C.R., Cleveland, N., Dart, R.C., Heard, K., The effect of amiodarone pretreatment on survival of mice with cocaine toxicity. J Med Toxicol 1 (2005), 11–18.
123. Weinberg, G., Ripper, R., Feinstein, D.L., Hoffman, W., Lipid emulsion infusion rescues dogs from bupivacaine-induced cardiac toxicity. Reg Anesth Pain Med 28 (2003), 198–202.
124. Arora, N.P., Berk, W.A., Aaron, C.K., Williams, K.A., Usefulness of intravenous lipid emulsion for cardiac toxicity from cocaine overdose. Am J Cardiol 111 (2013), 445–447.
125. Lavonas, E.J., Drennan, I.R., Gabrielli, A., et al. Part 10: Special circumstances of resuscitation: 2015 American Heart Association guidelines update for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Circulation 132 (2015), S501–S518.
126. Chin, K.M., Channick, R.N., Rubin, L.J., Is methamphetamine use associated with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension?. Chest 130 (2006), 1657–1663.
127. Kleerup, E.C., Wong, M., Marques-Magallanes, J.A., Goldman, M.D., Tashkin, D.P., Acute effects of intravenous cocaine on pulmonary artery pressure and cardiac index in habitual crack smokers. Chest 111 (1997), 30–35.
128. Schaiberger, P.H., Kennedy, T.C., Miller, F.C., Gal, J., Petty, T.L., Pulmonary hypertension associated with long-term inhalation of “crank” methamphetamine. Chest 104 (1993), 614–616.
129. Andrews, C.M., Lucki, I., Effects of cocaine on extracellular dopamine and serotonin levels in the nucleus accumbens. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 155 (2001), 221–229.
130. Ducas, J., Duval, D., Dasilva, H., Boiteau, P., Prewitt, R.M., Treatment of canine pulmonary hypertension: effects of norepinephrine and isoproterenol on pulmonary vascular pressure-flow characteristics. Circulation 75 (1987), 235–242.
131. Harrison, D.C., Pirages, S., Robison, S.C., Wintroub, B.U., The pulmonary and systemic circulatory response to dopamine infusion. Br J Pharmacol 37 (1969), 618–626.
132. Daggett, R.B., Haghighi, P., Terkeltaub, R.A., Nasal cocaine abuse causing an aggressive midline intranasal and pharyngeal destructive process mimicking midline reticulosis and limited Wegener's granulomatosis. J Rheumatol 17 (1990), 838–840.
133. Trimarchi, M., Gregorini, G., Facchetti, F., et al. Cocaine-induced midline destructive lesions: clinical, radiographic, histopathologic, and serologic features and their differentiation from Wegener granulomatosis. Medicine (Baltimore) 80 (2001), 391–404.
134. McGrath, M.M., Isakova, T., Rennke, H.G., Mottola, A.M., Laliberte, K.A., Niles, J.L., Contaminated cocaine and antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6 (2011), 2799–2805.
135. Toossi, S., Hess, C.P., Hills, N.K., Josephson, S.A., Neurovascular complications of cocaine use at a tertiary stroke center. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 19 (2010), 273–278.
136. Kalani, R., Liotta, E.M., Prabhakaran, S., Diagnostic yield of universal urine toxicology screening in an unselected cohort of stroke patients. PLoS One, 10, 2015, e0144772.
137. Westover, A.N., McBride, S., Haley, R.W., Stroke in young adults who abuse amphetamines or cocaine: a population-based study of hospitalized patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64 (2007), 495–502.
138. Cheng, Y.C., Ryan, K.A., Qadwai, S.A., et al. Cocaine use and risk of ischemic stroke in young adults. Stroke 47 (2016), 918–922.
139. Qureshi, A.I., Akbar, M.S., Czander, E., Safdar, K., Janssen, R.S., Frankel, M.R., Crack cocaine use and stroke in young patients. Neurology 48 (1997), 341–345.
140. Jauch, E.C., Saver, J.L., Adams, H.P. Jr., et al. American Heart Association Stroke Council Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease, and Council on Clinical Cardiology. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 44 (2013), 870–947.
141. Hemphill, J.C. III, Greenberg, S.M., Anderson, C.S., et al. American Heart Association Stroke Council, Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing, and Council on Clinical Cardiology. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 46 (2015), 2032–2060.
142. Martin-Schild, S., Albright, K.C., Hallevi, H., et al. Intracerebral hemorrhage in cocaine users. Stroke 41 (2010), 680–684.
143. Martin-Schild, S., Albright, K.C., Misra, V., et al. Intravenous tissue plasminogen activator in patients with cocaine-associated acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 40 (2009), 3635–3637.
144. Roberts, D.C., Morgan, D., Liu, Y., How to make a rat addicted to cocaine. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 31 (2007), 1614–1624.
145. Nestler, E.J., The neurobiology of cocaine addiction. Sci Pract Perspect 3 (2005), 4–10.
146. Fischbach, P., The role of illicit drug use in sudden death in the young. Cardiol Young 27 (2017), S75–S79.