Lifetime stress exposure and health: A review of contemporary assessment methods and biological mechanisms

Social and Personality Psychology Compass

Volumn 11, Issue 8, 2017, Pages

  Shields, Grant S ^a   Slavich, George M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

disease; health; life stress; measurement; risk; STRAIN

Indexed keywords

EID: 85026759623     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17519004     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/spc3.12335     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Akiyama, H., Barger, S., Barnum, S., Bradt, B., Bauer, J., Cole, G. M., … Wyss-Coray, T. (2000). Inflammation and Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiology of Aging, 21, 383–421. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0197-4580(00)00124-X
2. Allen, A. P., Kennedy, P. J., Cryan, J. F., Dinan, T. G., & Clarke, G. (2014). Biological and psychological markers of stress in humans: Focus on the Trier Social Stress Test. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 38, 94–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.11.005
3. Andersen, S. L., & Teicher, M. H. (2008). Stress, sensitive periods and maturational events in adolescent depression. Trends in Neurosciences, 31, 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2008.01.004
4. Auphan, N., DiDonato, J. A., Rosette, C., Helmberg, A., & Karin, M. (1995). Immunosuppression by glucocorticoids: Inhibition of NF-κB activity through induction of IκB synthesis. Science, 270, 286–290. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.270.5234.286
5. Bangasser, D. A., & Valentino, R. J. (2014). Sex differences in stress-related psychiatric disorders: Neurobiological perspectives. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 35, 303–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.03.008
6. Baratta, M. V., Rozeske, R. R., & Maier, S. F. (2013). Understanding stress resilience. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 158. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00158
7. Bierhaus, A., Wolf, J., Andrassy, M., Rohleder, N., Humpert, P. M., Petrov, D., … Nawroth, P. P. (2003). A mechanism converting psychosocial stress into mononuclear cell activation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100, 1920–1925. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0438019100
8. Bower, J. E., Crosswell, A. D., & Slavich, G. M. (2014). Childhood adversity and cumulative life stress: Risk factors for cancer-related fatigue. Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 108–115. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702613496243
9. Boyce, W. T., & Ellis, B. J. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary–developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 271–301. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579405050145
10. Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (1978). Social origins of depression: A study of psychiatric disorder in women. New York, NY: Free Press.
11. Brugha, T. S., & Cragg, D. (1990). The List of Threatening Experiences: The reliability and validity of a brief life events questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 82, 77–81. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1990.tb01360.x
12. Brugha, T. S., Bebbington, P., Tennant, C., & Hurry, J. (1985). The List of Threatening Experiences: A subset of 12 life event categories with considerable long-term contextual threat. Psychological Medicine, 15, 189–194. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329170002105X
13. Cahill, L., Gorski, L., & Le, K. (2003). Enhanced human memory consolidation with post-learning stress: Interaction with the degree of arousal at encoding. Learning & Memory, 10, 270–274. https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.62403
14. Carpenter, L. L., Carvalho, J. P., Tyrka, A. R., Wier, L. M., Mello, A. F., Mello, M. F., … Price, L. H. (2007). Decreased adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol responses to stress in healthy adults reporting significant childhood maltreatment. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 1080–1087. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.002
15. Charney, D. S. (2004). Psychobiological mechanisms of resilience and vulnerability: Implications for successful adaptation to extreme stress. American Journal of Psychiatry., 31, 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.2.195
16. Chiel, H. J., & Beer, R. D. (1997). The brain has a body: Adaptive behavior emerges from interactions of nervous system, body and environment. Trends in Neurosciences, 20, 553–557. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2236(97)01149-1
17. Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385–396. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136404
18. Cohen, S., Kessler, R. C., & Gordon, L. U. (1997). Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
19. Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., Doyle, W. J., Miller, G. E., Frank, E., Rabin, B. S., & Turner, R. B. (2012). Chronic stress, glucocorticoid receptor resistance, inflammation, and disease risk. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109, 5995–5999. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118355109
20. Couzin-Frankel, J. (2010). Inflammation bares a dark side. Science, 330, 1621–1621. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.330.6011.1621
21. Crandall, C. S., Preisler, J. J., & Aussprung, J. (1992). Measuring life event stress in the lives of college students: The Undergraduate Stress Questionnaire (USQ). Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 627–662. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00844860
22. Cuneo, M. G., Schrepf, A., Slavich, G. M., Thaker, P. H., Goodheart, M., Bender, D., … Lutgendorf, S. K. (in press). Diurnal cortisol rhythms, fatigue and psychosocial factors in five-year survivors of ovarian cancer. Psychoneuroendocrinology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.06.019
23. von Dawans, B., Kirschbaum, C., & Heinrichs, M. (2011). The Trier Social Stress Test for Groups (TSST-G): A new research tool for controlled simultaneous social stress exposure in a group format. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36, 514–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.08.004
24. Dedovic, K., Duchesne, A., Andrews, J., Engert, V., & Pruessner, J. C. (2009). The brain and the stress axis: The neural correlates of cortisol regulation in response to stress. NeuroImage, 47, 864–871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.05.074
25. Dhabhar, F. S. (2002). A hassle a day may keep the doctor away: Stress and the augmentation of immune function. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42, 556–564. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/42.3.556
26. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
27. Dias-Ferreira, E., Sousa, J. C., Melo, I., Morgado, P., Mesquita, A. R., Cerqueira, J. J., … Sousa, N. (2009). Chronic stress causes frontostriatal reorganization and affects decision-making. Science, 325, 621–625. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1171203
28. Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 355–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355
29. Dohrenwend, B. P. (2006). Inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 477–495. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.477
30. Dooley, L. N., Slavich, G. M., Moreno, P. I., & Bower, J. E. (2017). Strength through adversity: Moderate lifetime stress exposure is associated with psychological resilience in breast cancer survivors. Stress and Health. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2739
31. Doom, J. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2013). Stress physiology and developmental psychopathology: Past, present, and future. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1359–1373. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000667
32. Ebstrup, J. F., Eplov, L. F., Pisinger, C., & Jørgensen, T. (2011). Association between the Five Factor personality traits and perceived stress: Is the effect mediated by general self-efficacy? Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 24, 407–419. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2010.540012
33. Elliott, E., Ezra-Nevo, G., Regev, L., Neufeld-Cohen, A., & Chen, A. (2010). Resilience to social stress coincides with functional DNA methylation of the Crf gene in adult mice. Nature Neuroscience, 13, 1351–1353. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2642
34. Epel, E. S., Blackburn, E. H., Lin, J., Dhabhar, F. S., Adler, N. E., Morrow, J. D., & Cawthon, R. M. (2004). Accelerated telomere shortening in response to life stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 17312–17315. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0407162101
35. Feigenson, K. A., Kusnecov, A. W., & Silverstein, S. M. (2014). Inflammation and the two-hit hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 38, 72–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.11.006
36. Felmingham, K. L., Tran, T. P., Fong, W. C., & Bryant, R. A. (2012). Sex differences in emotional memory consolidation: The effect of stress-induced salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol. Biological Psychology, 89, 539–544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.12.006
37. Gianaros, P. J., Jennings, J. R., Sheu, L. K., Greer, P. J., Kuller, L. H., & Matthews, K. A. (2007). Prospective reports of chronic life stress predict decreased grey matter volume in the hippocampus. NeuroImage, 35, 795–803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.10.045
38. Gluck, M. E., Geliebter, A., Hung, J., & Yahav, E. (2004). Cortisol, hunger, and desire to binge eat following a cold stress test in obese women with binge eating disorder. Psychosomatic Medicine, 66, 876–881. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000143637.63508.47
39. Goldfarb, E. V., Shields, G. S., Daw, N. D., Slavich, G. M., & Phelps, E. A. (2017). Low lifetime stress exposure is associated with reduced stimulus–response memory. Learning & Memory, 24, 162–168. https://doi.org/10.1101/LM.045179.117
40. Graham, J. E., Christian, L. M., & Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2006). Stress, age, and immune function: Toward a lifespan approach. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 389–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-006-9057-4
41. Gray, M. J., Litz, B. T., Hsu, J. L., & Lombardo, T. W. (2004). Psychometric properties of the Life Events Checklist. Assessment, 11, 330–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104269954
42. Hammen, C., Adrian, C., Gordon, D., Burge, D., Jaenicke, C., & Hiroto, D. (1987). Children of depressed mothers: Maternal strain and symptom predictors. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 190–198. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.96.3.190
43. Heim, C., & Binder, E. B. (2012). Current research trends in early life stress and depression: Review of human studies on sensitive periods, gene–environment interactions, and epigenetics. Experimental Neurology, 233, 102–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.10.032
44. Hines, E. A., & Brown, G. E. (1932). A standard stimulus for measuring vasomotor reactions: Its application in the study of hypertension. Proceedings of the Staff Meetings of the Mayo Clinic, 7, 332.
45. Hinwood, M., Morandini, J., Day, T. A., & Walker, F. R. (2012). Evidence that microglia mediate the neurobiological effects of chronic psychological stress on the medial prefrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 22, 1442–1454. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr229
46. Hinwood, M., Tynan, R. J., Charnley, J. L., Beynon, S. B., Day, T. A., & Walker, F. R. (2013). Chronic stress induced remodeling of the prefrontal cortex: Structural re-organization of microglia and the inhibitory effect of minocycline. Cerebral Cortex, 23, 1784–1797. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhs151
47. Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhpa.2010.02.001
48. Hostinar, C. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2013). The developmental effects of early life stress: An overview of current theoretical frameworks. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 400–406. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413488889
49. Irwin, M. R., & Cole, S. W. (2011). Reciprocal regulation of the neural and innate immune systems. Nature Reviews Immunology, 11, 625–632. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri3042
50. Juster, R.-P., McEwen, B. S., & Lupien, S. J. (2010). Allostatic load biomarkers of chronic stress and impact on health and cognition. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 2–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.10.002
51. Kirschbaum, C., Pirke, K. M., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1993). The “Trier Social Stress Test”—A tool for investigating psychobiological stress responses in a laboratory setting. Neuropsychobiology, 28, 76–81. https://doi.org/10.1159/000119004
52. Kitraki, E., Karandrea, D., & Kittas, C. (1999). Long-lasting effects of stress on glucocorticoid receptor gene expression in the rat brain. Neuroendocrinology, 69, 331–338. https://doi.org/10.1159/000054435
53. Koenig, J. I., Walker, C.-D., Romeo, R. D., & Lupien, S. J. (2011). Effects of stress across the lifespan. Stress, 14, 475–480. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2011.604879
54. Kurtzman, L., O'Donovan, A., Koslov, K., Arenander, J., Epel, E. S., & Slavich, G. M. (2012). Sweating the big stuff: Dispositional pessimism exacerbates the deleterious effects of life stress on metabolic health. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 3. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v3i0.19401
55. Lam, J. C. W., Shields, G. S., Trainor, B. C., Slavich, G. M., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2017). Greater lifetime stress exposure predicts blunted cortisol but heightened DHEA reactivity to acute stress. Manuscript under review.
56. Lane, N. D., Lin, M., Mohammod, M., Yang, X., Lu, H., Cardone, G., … Choudhury, T. (2014). BeWell: Sensing sleep, physical activities and social interactions to promote wellbeing. Mobile Networks and Applications, 19, 345–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11036-013-0484-5
57. Laredo, S. A., Steinman, M. Q., Robles, C. F., Ferrer, E., Ragen, B. J., & Trainor, B. C. (2015). Effects of defeat stress on behavioral flexibility in males and females: Modulation by the mu-opioid receptor. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 41, 434–441. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.12824
58. Lebois, L. A. M., Hertzog, C., Slavich, G. M., Barrett, L. F., & Barsalou, L. W. (2016). Establishing the situated features associated with perceived stress. Acta Psychologica, 169, 119–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2016.05.012
59. Lennartsson, A.-K., Kushnir, M. M., Bergquist, J., Billig, H., & Jonsdottir, I. H. (2012). Sex steroid levels temporarily increase in response to acute psychosocial stress in healthy men and women. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 84, 246–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.03.001
60. Levenstein, S., Prantera, C., Varvo, V., Scribano, M. L., Berto, E., Luzi, C., & Andreoli, A. (1993). Development of the perceived stress questionnaire: A new tool for psychosomatic research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 37, 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(93)90120-5
61. Libby, P. (2002). Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation, 105, 1135–1143. https://doi.org/10.1161/hc0902.104353
62. Liu, D., Diorio, J., Tannenbaum, B., Caldji, C., Francis, D., Freedman, A., … Meaney, M. J. (1997). Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress. Science, 277, 1659–1662. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5332.1659
63. Lovallo, W., & Thomas, T. (2000). Stress hormones in psychophysiological research: Emotional, behavioral, and cognitive implications. In J. T. Cacioppo, L. G. Tassinary, & G. G. Berntson (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (pp. 342–367). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
64. Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434–445. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2639
65. Ly, K. H., Asplund, K., & Andersson, G. (2014). Stress management for middle managers via an acceptance and commitment-based smartphone application: A randomized controlled trial. Internet Interventions, 1, 95–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2014.06.003
66. Malat, J., Jacquez, F., & Slavich, G. M. (in press). Measuring lifetime stress exposure and protective factors in life course research on racial inequality and birth outcomes. Stress. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2017.1341871
67. McEwen, B. S. (1998). Stress, adaptation, and disease: Allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 840, 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb09546.x
68. McEwen, B. S. (2005). Stressed or stressed out: What is the difference? Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience, 30, 315–318. Retrieved from http://jpn.ca/vol30-issue5/30-5-315/
69. McEwen, B. S. (2007). Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: Central role of the brain. Physiological Reviews, 87, 873–904. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00041.2006
70. McEwen, B. S., & Sapolsky, R. M. (1995). Stress and cognitive function. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 5, 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-4388(95)80028-X
71. Meethal, S. V., & Atwood, C. S. (2005). The role of hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal hormones in the normal structure and functioning of the brain. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, 62, 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-004-4381-3
72. Millar, R. P., Lu, Z. L., Pawson, A. J., Flanagan, C. A., Morgan, K., & Maudsley, S. R. (2004). Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptors. Endocrine Reviews, 25, 235–275. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2003-0002
73. Miller, A. H., Pariante, C. M., & Pearce, B. D. (1999). Effects of cytokines on glucocorticoid receptor expression and function: Glucocorticoid resistance and relevance to depression. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 461, 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-585-37970-8_7
74. Miller, G., Chen, E., & Cole, S. W. (2009). Health psychology: Developing biologically plausible models linking the social world and physical health. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 501–524. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163551
75. Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Parker, K. J. (2011). Psychological stress in childhood and susceptibility to the chronic diseases of aging: Moving toward a model of behavioral and biological mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 959–997. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024768
76. Monroe, S. M. (2008). Modern approaches to conceptualizing and measuring human life stress. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 33–52. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141207
77. Monroe, S. M., & Slavich, G. M. (2016). Psychological stressors: Overview. In G. Fink (Ed.), Stress: Concepts, cognition, emotion, and behavior (pp. 109–115). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800951-2.00013-3
78. Monroe, S. M., Slavich, G. M., & Georgiades, K. (2014). The social environment and depression: The roles of life stress. In I. H. Gotlib, & C. L. Hammen (Eds.), Handbook of depression (3rd ed.) (pp. 296–314). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
79. Myin-Germeys, I., Krabbendam, L., Delespaul, P. A. E. G., & Van Os, J. (2003). Do life events have their effect on psychosis by influencing the emotional reactivity to daily life stress? Psychological Medicine, 33, 327–333. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291702006785
80. Naldi, L., Chatenoud, L., Linder, D., Belloni Fortina, A., Peserico, A., Virgili, A. R., … Vecchia, C. L. (2005). Cigarette smoking, body mass index, and stressful life events as risk factors for psoriasis: Results from an Italian case–control study. Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 125, 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23681.x
81. Nederhof, E., & Schmidt, M. V. (2012). Mismatch or cumulative stress: Toward an integrated hypothesis of programming effects. Physiology & Behavior, 106, 691–700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.12.008
82. Pariante, C. M. (1999). The proinflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1, reduces glucocorticoid receptor translocation and function. Endocrinology, 140, 4359–4366. https://doi.org/10.1210/en.140.9.4359
83. Peng, L., Zhang, J., Li, M., Li, P., Zhang, Y., Zuo, X., … Xu, Y. (2012). Negative life events and mental health of Chinese medical students: The effect of resilience, personality and social support. Psychiatry Research, 196, 138–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.12.006
84. Ridker, P. M., Cushman, M., Stampfer, M. J., Tracy, R. P., & Hennekens, C. H. (1997). Inflammation, aspirin, and the risk of cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy men. The New England Journal of Medicine, 336, 973–979. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199704033361401
85. Risch, N., Herrell, R., Lehner, T., Liang, K.-Y., Eaves, L., Hoh, J., … Merikangas, K. R. (2009). Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), stressful life events, and risk of depression: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301, 2462–2471. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.878
86. Rosengren, A., Orth-Gomér, K., Wedel, H., & Wilhelmsen, L. (1993). Stressful life events, social support, and mortality in men born in 1933. British Medical Journal, 307, 1102–1105. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.307.6912.1102
87. Sabban, E. L., & Kvetňanský, R. (2001). Stress-triggered activation of gene expression in catecholaminergic systems: Dynamics of transcriptional events. Trends in Neurosciences, 24, 91–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-2236(00)01687-8
88. Santarelli, S., Lesuis, S. L., Wang, X.-D., Wagner, K. V., Hartmann, J., Labermaier, C., … Schmidt, M. V. (2014). Evidence supporting the match/mismatch hypothesis of psychiatric disorders. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 24, 907–918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.02.002
89. Sapolsky, R. M., Rivier, C., Yamamoto, G., Plotsky, P., & Vale, W. (1987). Interleukin-1 stimulates the secretion of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor. Science, 238, 522–524. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2821621
90. Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. U. (2000). How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21, 55–89. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.21.1.55
91. Sawchenko, P. E., Li, H. Y., & Ericsson, A. (2000). Circuits and mechanisms governing hypothalamic responses to stress: A tale of two paradigms. Progress in Brain Research, 122, 61–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0079-6123(08)62131-7
92. Schlesinger, M., & Yodfat, Y. (1991). The impact of stressful life events on natural killer cells. Stress Medicine, 7, 53–60. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2460070110
93. Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 275, 1593–1599. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.275.5306.1593
94. Schwabe, L., Haddad, L., & Schachinger, H. (2008). HPA axis activation by a socially evaluated cold-pressor test. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33, 890–895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.001
95. Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E. (2004). Psychological stress and the human immune system: A meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 601–630. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.601
96. Shansky, R. M. (2015). Sex differences in PTSD resilience and susceptibility: Challenges for animal models of fear learning. Neurobiology of Stress, 1, 60–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ynstr.2014.09.005
97. Shields, G. S., Sazma, M. A., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2016). The effects of acute stress on core executive functions: A meta-analysis and comparison with effects of cortisol. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 68, 651–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.038
98. Shields, G. S., Trainor, B. C., Lam, J. C. W., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2016). Acute stress impairs cognitive flexibility in men, not women. Stress, 19, 542–546. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2016.1192603
99. Shields, G. S., Moons, W. G., & Slavich, G. M. (2017). Better executive function under stress mitigates the effects of recent life stress exposure on health in young adults. Stress, 20, 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890.2017.1286322
100. Shields, G. S., Sazma, M. A., McCullough, A. M., & Yonelinas, A. P. (2017). The effects of acute stress on episodic memory: A meta-analysis and integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 143, 636–675. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000100
101. Silverman, M. N., & Sternberg, E. M. (2012). Glucocorticoid regulation of inflammation and its functional correlates: From HPA axis to glucocorticoid receptor dysfunction. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1261, 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06633.x
102. Slavich, G. M. (2015). Understanding inflammation, its regulation, and relevance for health: A top scientific and public priority. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 45, 13–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2014.10.012
103. Slavich, G. M. (2016). Life stress and health: A review of conceptual issues and recent findings. Teaching of Psychology, 43, 346–355. https://doi.org/10.1177/0098628316662768
104. Slavich, G. M., & Cole, S. W. (2013). The emerging field of human social genomics. Clinical Psychological Science, 1, 331–348. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702613478594
105. Slavich, G. M., & Irwin, M. R. (2014). From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: A social signal transduction theory of depression. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 774–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035302
106. Slavich, G. M., & Shields, G. S. (in press). Assessing lifetime stress exposure using the Stress and Adversity Inventory for Adults (Adult STRAIN): An overview and initial validation. Psychosomatic Medicine.
107. Slavich, G. M., & Toussaint, L. (2014). Using the Stress and Adversity Inventory as a teaching tool leads to significant learning gains in two courses on stress and health. Stress and Health, 30, 343–352. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2523
108. Slavich, G. M., O'Donovan, A., Epel, E. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2010). Black sheep get the blues: A psychobiological model of social rejection and depression. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.01.003
109. Slavich, G. M., Way, B. M., Eisenberger, N. I., & Taylor, S. E. (2010). Neural sensitivity to social rejection is associated with inflammatory responses to social stress. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 14817–14822. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1009164107
110. Slavich, G. M., Tartter, M. A., Brennan, P. A., & Hammen, C. (2014). Endogenous opioid system influences depressive reactions to socially painful targeted rejection life events. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 49, 141–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.07.009
111. Smeets, T., Cornelisse, S., Quaedflieg, C. W. E. M., Meyer, T., Jelicic, M., & Merckelbach, H. (2012). Introducing the Maastricht Acute Stress Test (MAST): A quick and non-invasive approach to elicit robust autonomic and glucocorticoid stress responses. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37, 1998–2008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.04.012
112. Soreq, H., Kaufer, D., Friedman, A., & Seidman, S. (1998). Acute stress facilitates long-lasting changes in cholinergic gene expression. Nature, 393, 373–377. https://doi.org/10.1038/30741
113. Sterling, P., & Eyer, J. (1988). Allostasis: A new paradigm to explain arousal pathology. In F. Shirley, & J. Reason (Eds.), Handbook of life stress, cognition and health (pp. 629–649). Oxford, England: John Wiley & Sons.
114. Toussaint, L., Shields, G. S., Dorn, G., & Slavich, G. M. (2016). Effects of lifetime stress exposure on mental and physical health in young adulthood: How stress degrades and forgiveness protects health. Journal of Health Psychology, 21, 1004–1014. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105314544132
115. Wang, X., Wu, H., & Miller, A. H. (2004). Interleukin 1alpha (IL-1alpha) induced activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibits glucocorticoid receptor function. Molecular Psychiatry, 9, 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001339
116. van der Werff, S. J. A., van den Berg, S. M., Pannekoek, J. N., Elzinga, B. M., & van der Wee, N. J. A. (2013). Neuroimaging resilience to stress: A review. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 7, 39. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00039
117. Zalosnik, M. I., Pollano, A., Trujillo, V., Suárez, M. M., & Durando, P. E. (2014). Effect of maternal separation and chronic stress on hippocampal-dependent memory in young adult rats: Evidence for the match–mismatch hypothesis. Stress, 17, 445–450. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2014.936005