Inventorying stressful life events as risk factors for psychopathology: Toward resolution of the problem of intracategory variability

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 132, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 477-495

  Dohrenwend, Bruce P ^a,b,c  

^a NEW YORK STATE PSYCHIATRIC INSTITUTE   (United States)

^b Columbia University ^*  (United States)

^c Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

Author keywords

Checklist inventories; Intracategory variability; Narrative rating methods; Psychopathology; Stressful life events

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CONFLICT; HUMAN; LIFE EVENT; MENTAL DISEASE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RISK FACTOR; VERBAL COMMUNICATION;

CONFLICT (PSYCHOLOGY); HUMANS; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; MENTAL DISORDERS; NARRATION; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 33744913283     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.477     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. Bebbington, P., Tennant, C., Stuart, E., & Hurry, J. (1984). The domain of life events: A comparison of two techniques of description. Psychological Medicine, 14, 219-222.
2. Belli, R. F. (1998). The structure of autobiographical memory and the event history calendar: Potential improvements in the quality of retrospective reports in surveys. Memory, 6, 383-406.
3. Bifulco, A., Brown, G. W., Lillie, A., & Jarvis, J. (1997). Memories of childhood neglect and abuse: Corroboration in a series of sisters. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 38, 365-374.
4. Blaney, P. H. (1986). Affect and memory: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 229-246.
5. Bradburn, N. M. (2000). Temporal representation and event dating. In A. A. Stone, et al. (Eds.), The science of self-report: Implications for research and practice (pp. 49-61). Mahwah: N.T: Erlbaum.
6. Bramsen, I., van der Ploeg, H., Dirkzwager, A., & van Esch, S. (2001). Consistency of self-reports of traumatic events in a population of Dutch peacekeepers: Reason for optimism? Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 733-740.
7. Breslau, N. (2002). Epidemiologic studies of trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and psychiatric disorders. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 47, 923-929.
8. Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Andreski, P., & Peterson, E. (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 216-222.
9. Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Peterson, E. L., & Schultz, L. (1997). Psychiatric sequelae of posttraumatic stress disorder in women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 81-87.
10. Breslau, N., Kessler, R. C., Chilcoat, II. D., Schultz, L. R., Davis, G. C., & Andreski, P. (1998). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 626-632.
11. Brett, J. F., Brief, A. P., Burke, M. J., George, J. M., & Webster, J. (1990). Negative affectivity and the reporting of stressful life events. Health Psychology, 9, 57-68.
12. Brown, G. W. (1974). Meaning, measurement, and stress of life events. In B. S. Dohrenwend & B. P. Dohrenwend (Eds.), Stressful life events: Their nature and effects (pp. 217-243). New York: Wiley.
13. Brown, G. W., & Birley, J. L. T. (1968). Crises and life changes and the onset of schizophrenia. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 9, 203-214.
14. Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (1978). Social origins of depression: A study of psychiatric disorder in women. New York: Free Press.
15. Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. O. (Eds.) (1989). Life events and illness. New York: Guilford Press, 1989.
16. Brown, G. W., Sklair, K, Harris, T. O., & Birley, J. L. T. (1973). Life events and psychiatric disorders: I. Some methodological issues. Psychological Medicine, 3, 74-78.
17. Bruce, M. L. (1998). Divorce and psychopathology. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and psychopathology (pp. 219-234). New York: Oxford University Press.
18. Brugha, T. S., & Cragg, D. (1990). The list of threatening experiences: The reliability and validity of a brief life events questionnaire. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 82, 77-81.
19. Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Thornton, A., Freedman, D., Amell, J. W., Harrington, H., et al. (1996). The life history calendar: A research and clinical assessment method for collecting retrospective event-history data. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 6, 101-114.
20. Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt. T. E., Taylor, A., Craig, I. W., & Harrington, H, et al. (2003). Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science, 301, 386-389.
21. Clayton, P. J. (1998). Model of stress. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.). Adversity, stress and psychopathology (pp. 96-110). New York: Oxford University Press.
22. Cohen, L., Towbes, L., & Flocco, R. (1988). Effects of induced mood on self-reported life events and perceived and received social support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 669-674.
23. Cohen, S., Kessler, R. C., & Gordon, L. U. (Eds.). (1997a). Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists. New York: Oxford University Press.
24. Cohen, S., Kessler, R. C., & Gordon, L. U. (1997b). Strategies for measuring stress in studies of psychiatric and physical disorders. In S. Cohen, R. C. Kessler, & L. U. Gordon (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists. New York: Oxford University Press.
25. Cooke, D. J., & Hole, D. J. (1983). The aetiological importance of stressful life events. British Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 397-400.
26. Costello, C. G., & Devins, G. M. (1988). Two-staged screening for stressful events and chronic difficulties. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 20, 85-92.
27. Creed, F. (1993). Stress and psychosomatic disorders. In Goldberger, L & Breznitz, S. (Eds.), Handbook of stress (2nd ed., pp. 496-510). New York: The Free Press.
28. Davidson, J. R. T., Hughes, D., Blazer, D. G., & George, L. K. (1991). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the community: An epidemiological study. Psychological Medicine, 21, 713-721.
29. Day, R. (1989). Life events and schizophrenia: The "triggering" hypothesis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 64, 97-122.
30. Dew, M. A. (1998). Psychiatric disorder in the context of physical illness. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and psychopathology (pp. 177-218). New York: Oxford University Press.
31. Dohrenwend, B. P. (1974). Problems in defining and sampling the relevant population of stressful life events. In B. S. Dohrenwend & B. P. Dohrenwend (Eds.), Stressful life events (pp. 275-310). New York: Wiley.
32. Dohrenwend, B. P. (1979). Stressful life events and psychopathology: Some issues of theory and method. In J. F. Barrett & R. M. Rose, et al. (Eds.), Stress and mental disorder (pp. 1-15). New York: Raven Press.
33. Dohrenwend, B. P. (1998). Theoretical integration. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and psychopathology (pp. 539-555). New York: Oxford University Press.
34. Dohrenwend, B. P. (2000). The role of adversity and stress in psychopathology: Some evidence and its implications for theory and research. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 1-19.
35. Dohrenwend, B. P., Link, B. G., Kern. R., Shrout, P. E., & Markowitz, J. (1990) Measuring life events: The problem of variability within event categories. Stress Medicine, 6, 179-187.
36. Dohrenwend, B. P., Neria, Y., Turner, J. B., Turse, N., Marshall. R., Lewis-Fernandez, R., et al. (2004). Positive tertiary appraisals and post-traumatic stress disorder in U. S. male veterans of the war in Vietnam: The roles of positive affirmation, positive reformulation, and defensive denial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 417-433.
37. Dohrenwend, B. P., Raphael, K. G., Schwanz, S., Stueve, A., & Skodol, A. E. (1993). The structured event probe and narrative rating method (SEPRATE) for measuring stressful life events. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (2nd ed., pp. 174-199). New York: Free Press.
38. Dohrenwend, B. P., & Shrout, P. E. (1985). "Hassles" in the conceptualization and measurement of life stress variables. American Psychologist, 40, 780-785.
39. Dohrenwend, B. P., Shrout, P. E., Link, B. G., Martin, J. L., & Skodol, A. E. (1986). Overview and initial results from a risk-factor study of depression and schizophrenia. In J. E. Barrett & R. M. Rose (Eds.), Mental disorders in the community. New York: The Guilford Press.
40. Dohrenwend, B. S., & Dohrenwend. B. P. (Eds.) (1974). Stressful life events: Their nature and effects. New York. Wiley.
41. Dohrenwend, B. S., Dohrenwend, B. P., Dodson, M., & Shrout, P. E. (1984). Symptoms, hassles, social supports and life events: The problem of confounded measures. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 222-230.
42. Dohrenwend, B. S., Krasnoff, L., Askenasy, A. R., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1978). Exemplification of method for scaling life events: The PERI lifeevents scale. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19, 205-229.
43. Duggal, S., Malkoff-Schwartz, S., Birmaher, B., Anderson, B. P., Matty, M. K., Houck, P. R., et al. (2000). Assessment of life stress in adolescents: Self-report versus interview methods. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 445-451.
44. Eckenrode, J., & Bolger, N. (1997). Daily and within-day event measurement. In S. Cohen et al. (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 80-101). New York: Oxford University Press.
45. Faravelli, C., & Ambonetti, A. (1983). Assessment of life events in depressive disorders: A comparison of three methods. Social Psychiatry, 18, 51-56.
46. Frank, E., Anderson, B., Reynolds, C. F., III, Ritenour, A., & Kupfer, D. J. (1994). Life events and the research diagnostic criteria endogenous subtype. A confirmation of the distinction using the Bedford College methods. Archivas of General Psychiatry, 51, 519-524.
47. Garber, J., Keiley, M. K., & Martin, N. C. (2002). Developmental trajectories of adolescents' depressive symptoms: Predictors of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 79-95.
48. Giel, R. (1998). Natural and human-made disasters. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and psychopathology (pp. 66-76). New York: Oxford University Press.
49. Goodman, L. A., Corcoran, C., Turner, K., Yuan, N., & Green, B. L. (1998). Assessing traumatic event exposure: General issues and preliminary findings for the stressful life events screening questionnaire. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 521-542.
50. Goodyer, I. M., & Altman, P. M. E. (1991a). Lifetime exit events and recent social and family adversities in anxious and depressed school-age children and adolescents - I. Journal of Affective Disorders, 21, 219-228.
51. Goodyer, I. M., & Altman, P. M. E. (1991b). Lifetime exit events and recent social and family adversities in anxious and depressed school-age children and adolescents-II. Journal of Affective Disorders, 21, 229-238.
52. Gorman, D. M. (1993). A review of studies comparing checklist and interview methods of data collection in life event research. Behavioral Medicine, 19, 66-73.
53. Grant, I., Gerst, M., & Yager, J. (1976). Scaling of life events by psychiatric patients and normals. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 20, 141-149.
54. Grant, I., Sweetwood, H. L., Yager, J., & Gerst, M. (1981). Quality of life events in relation to psychiatric symptoms. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 335-339.
55. Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Stuhlmacher. A. F., Thurm. A. E., McMahon, S. D., & Halpert, J. A. (2003). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Moving from markers to mechanisms of risk. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 447-466.
56. Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., & Gipson, P. Y. (2004). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Measurement issues and prospective effects. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 412-425.
57. Gunderson, E. K. E., & Rahe, R. H. (Eds.) (1974). Life stress and illness. Springfield. IL: Charles C. Thomas.
58. Hammen, C. (1991). Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 555-561.
59. Hammen, C. (2005). Stress and depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 293-319.
60. Hohfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513-524.
61. Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213-218.
62. Hudgens, R. W. (1974). Personal catastrophe and depression: A consideration of the subject with respect to mentally ill adolescents, and a requiem for retrospective life-event studies. In B. S. Dohrenwend & B. P. Dohrenwend (Eds.), Stressful life events: Their nature and effects (pp. 119-134). New York: Wiley and Sons.
63. Jenkins, C. D., Hurst, M. W., & Rose, R. M. (1979). Life changes: Do people really remember? Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 379-384.
64. Johnson, J. H., & Bradlyn, A. S. (1988). Assessing stressful life events in childhood and adolescence. In P. Karoly (Ed.), Handbook of child health assessment: Bio perspectives (pp. 303-331). New York: Wiley.
65. Kanner, A. D., Coyne, J. C., Schaefer, C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981). Comparison of two modes of stress measurement: Daily hassles and uplifts versus major life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 1-39.
66. Kasl. S. V., Rodriguez, E., & Lasch, K. E. (1998). The impact of unemployment on health and well-being. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and psychopathology (pp. 111-131). New York: Oxford University Press.
67. Katschnig, H. (1986). Measuring life stress-a comparison of the checklist and the panel technique. In H. Katschnig (Ed.), Life events and psychiatric disorders (pp. 74-106). New York: Cambridge University Press.
68. Kendler, K. S. (1998). Adversity, stress, and psychopathology. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and, psychopathology (pp. 477-485). New York: Oxford University Press.
69. Kendler, K. S., Hettema, J. M., Butera, F., Gardner, C. O., & Prescott, C. A. (2003). Life event dimensions of loss, humiliation, entrapment, and danger in the prediction of onsets of major depression and generalized anxiety. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 789-796.
70. Kendler, K. S., Kessler, R. C., Walters, E. E., MacLean, C., Neale, M. C., Heath, A. C., et al. (1995). Stressful life events, genetic liability, and onset of an episode of major depression in women. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 833-842.
71. Kessler, R. C. (1997). The effects of stressful life events on depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 191-214.
72. Kessler, R. C., Davis, C. G., & Kendler, K. S. (1997). Childhood adversity and adult psychiatric disorder in the U.S. national comorbidity survey. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1101-1119.
73. Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048-1060.
74. Kihlstrom, J. F., Eich, E., Sandbrand. D., & Tobias. B. A. (2000). Emotion and memory: Implications for self-report. In A. A. Stone, et al. (Eds.), The science of self-report: Implications for research and practice. Mahwah: NJ: Erlbaum.
75. Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1998). Rape, other violence against women, and post-traumatic stress disorder: Critical issues in assessing the adversity-stress-psychopathology relationship. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and, psychopathology (pp. 161-176). New York: Oxford University Press.
76. King, D. W., King, L. A., Erickson, D. J., Huang, M. T., Sharkansky, E. J., & Wolfe, J. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder and retrospectively reported Stressor exposure: A longitudinal prediction model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 624-633.
77. Klein, D. N., & Rubovits, D. R. (1987). The reliability of subjects' reports on stressful life events inventories: A longitudinal study. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 10, 501-512.
78. Koenen, K., Stellman, J., Stellman, S., & Dohrenwend, B. (2000, November1). Combat exposure reporting and relationship to PTSD in Vietnam veterans. Presentation at the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.
79. Kohn, R., Dohrenwend, B. P., & Mirotznik, J. (1998). In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and psychopathology (pp. 235-284). New York: Oxford University Press.
80. Kubany, E. S., Haynes, S. N., Leisen, M. B., Owens, J. A., Kaplan, A. S., Watson, S. B., et al. (2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: The traumatic life events questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 12, 210-224.
81. Kulka, R. A., Schienger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Hough, R. L., Jordan, B. K., & Mannar, C. R., et al. (1990). Trauma and the Vietnam War generation. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
82. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman. S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.
83. Lennon, M. C., Dohrenwend, B. P., Zautra, A. Z., & Marbach, J. J. (1990). Coping and adaption to facial pain in contrast to other stressful life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1040-1050.
84. Lepore, S. L. (1997). Measurement of chronic Stressors. In S. Cohen et al. (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 102-120). New York: Oxford University Press.
85. Levav, I., Krasnoff, L., & Dohrenwend, B. S. (1981). Israeli PERI life event scale: Ratings of events by a community sample. Israel Journal of Medical Sciences, 17, 176-183.
86. Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Gau, J. M. (2003). Comparability of self-report checklist and interview data in the assessment of stressful life events in young adults. Psychological Reports, 93, 459-471.
87. Lloyd, C. (1980). Life events and depressive disorder reviewed. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 541-548.
88. Lyketsos, C. G., Nestadt, G., Cwi, J., Heithoff, K., & Eaton, W. W. (1994). The life chart interview: A standardized method to describe the course of psychopathology. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 4, 143-155.
89. Mazure, C. M., Bruce, M. L., Maciejewski, P. K., & Jacobs, S. C. (2000). Adverse life events and cognitive-personality characteristics in the prediction of major depression and antidepressant response. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 896-903.
90. McQuaid, J. R., Monroe, S. M., Roberts, J. E., Johnson, S. L., Garamoni, G., & Kupfer, D. J., et al. (1992). Toward the standardization of life stress assessment: Definitional discrepancies and inconsistencies in methods. Stress Medicine, 8, 47-56.
91. McQuaid, J. R., Monroe, S. M., Roberts, J. E., Kupfer, D. J., & Frank, E. (2000). A comparison of two life stress assessment approaches: Prospective prediction of treatment outcome in recurrent depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 787-791.
92. Mechanic, D. (1975). Some problems in the measurement of stress and social readjustment. Journal of Human Stress, 1, 43-48.
93. Meyer, A. (1951). The life chart and the obligation of specifying positive data in psychopathogical diagnosis. In E. G. Winters (Ed.). The collected papers of Adolf Meyer: Vol. 3. Medical teaching. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins.
94. Miller, P. M., & Salter, D. P. (1984). Is there a short-cut? An investigation into the life event interview. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 70, 417-427.
95. Mollica, R. F., Poole, C., & Tor, S. (1998). Symptoms, functioning, and health problems in a massively traumatized population: The legacy of the Cambodian tragedy. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and psychopathology (pp. 161-176). New York: Oxford University Press.
96. Monroe, S. M. (1982). Assessment of life events. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32, 606-610.
97. Monroe, S. M., & Harkness, K. L. (2005). Life stress, the "Kindling" hypothesis, and the recurrence of depression: Considerations from a life stress perspective. Psychological Review, 112, 417-445.
98. Monroe, S. M, Kupfer, D. J., & Frank, E. (1992). Life stress and treatment outcomes: I. Response during index episode. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 718-724.
99. Monroe, S. M., & Roberts, J. E. (1990). Conceptualizing and measuring life stress: Problems. Stress Medicine, 6, 209-216.
100. Morgan, C. A. (1997, November). The evolution of memory for traumatic events. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. Montreal.
101. Neugebaucr, R. (1983). Reliability of life-event interviews with outpatient schizophrenics. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 378-383.
102. Neugebauer, R. (1984). The reliability of life-events reports. In B. S. Dohrenwend & B. P. Dohrenwend (Eds.), Stressful life events and their contexts (pp. 85-107). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
103. Norman, R. M. G., & Malla, A. K. (1993). Stressful life events and schizophrenia I: A review of the research. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 161-166.
104. Norris, F. H. (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3, 409-418.
105. O'Hare, W. P. (1989). Poverty in America: Trends and new patterns. Population Bulletin 49, 1-45.
106. Ormel, J., Oldehinkel, A. J., & Brilman, E. I. (2001). The interplay and etiological continuity of neuroticism, difficulties, and life events in the etiology of major and subsyndromal, first and recurrent depressive episodes in later life. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 885-891.
107. Paykel, E. S. (1974). Life stress and psychiatric disorder: Applications of the clinical approach. In B. S. Dohrenwend & B. P. Dohrenwend (Eds.), Stressful life events: Their nature and effects (pp. 135-149). New York:Wiley.
108. Paykel, E. S. (1983). Methodological aspects of life events research. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 27, 341-352.
109. Paykel, E. S. (1987). Methodology of life events research. Advanced Psychosomatic Medicine, 17, 13-29.
110. Paykel, E. S. (1997). The interview for recent life events. Psychological Medicine, 27, 301-310.
111. Paykel, E. S. (2001). The evolution of life events research in psychiatry. Journal of Affective Disorders, 62, 141-149.
112. Paykel, E. S., Prusoff, B. A., & Uhlenhuth, E. H. (1971). Scaling of life events. Archives of General Psychiatry, 25, 340-347.
113. Post, R. M. (1992). Transduction of psychosocial stress into the neurobiology of recurrent affective disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 999-1010.
114. Rabkin, J. G., & Struening, E. L. (1976). Life events, stress and illness. Science, 194, 1013-1020.
115. Rahe, R. H., & Arthur, R. J. (1978). Life change and illness studies: Past history and future directions. Journal of Human Stress, 4, 3-15.
116. Raphael, K. G., & Cloitre, M. (1994). Does mood-congruence or causal search govern recall bias? A test of life event recall. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 47, 555-564.
117. Raphael, K. G., Cloitre, M., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1991). Problems of recall and misclassification with checklist methods of measuring stressful life events. Health Psychology, 10, 62-74.
118. Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1993). Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 6, 984-991.
119. Roemer, L., Litz, B., Orsillo, S., Ehlich, P. J., & Friedman, M. J. (1998). Increases in retrospective accounts of war-zone exposure over time: The rise of PTSD symptom severity, Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 597-605.
120. Rudolph, K., & Hammen, C. (1999). Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: A transactional perspective. Child Development, 70, 660-677.
121. Rutter, M (1986). Meyerian psychobiology, personality development, and the role of life experiences. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1077-1087.
122. Sarason, I. G., Johnson. J. H., & Siegel, J. M. (1978). Assessing the impact of life changes: Development of the life experiences survey. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 932-946.
123. Sarason, I. G., & Sarason, B. R. (1985). Life change, social support, coping and health. In R. M. Kaplan & Criqui, M. H. (Eds.), Behavioral epidemiology and disease prevention. (Vol. 84, pp. 219-236). New York: Plenum Press Publishing.
124. Schaeffer. N. C. (2000). Asking questions about threatening topics: A selective overview. In A. A. Stone, et al. (Eds.), The science of selfreport: Implications for research and practice (pp. 105-121). Mahwah: NJ: Erlbaum.
125. Schless, A. P., Schwartz, L., Goetz, C., & Mendels, J. (1974). How depressives view the significance of life events. British Journal of Psychiatry, 125, 406-410.
126. Shrout, P., Link, B. G., Dohrenwend, B. P., Skodol, A. E., Stueve, A., & Mirotznik, G. (1989). Characterizing life events as risk factors for depression: The role of fateful loss events. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 460-467.
127. Southwick, S. M., Morgan, C. A., III. Nicolau, A. L., & Charney. D. S. (1997). Consistency of memory for combat-related traumatic events in veterans of operation desert storm. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 173-177.
128. Steele, G. P., Henderson, S., & Duncan-Jones, P. (1980). The reliability of reporting adverse experiences. Psychological Medicine, 10, 301-306.
129. Stueve, A., Dohrenwend, B. P., & Skodol. A. E. (1998). Relationships between stressful life events and episodes of major depression and nonaffcctive psychotic disorders: Selected results from a New York risk factor study. In B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and psychopathology (pp. 341-357). New York: Oxford University Press.
130. Tennant, C., & Andrews, G. (1978). The pathogenic quality of life event stress in neurotic impairment. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 859-863.
131. Tennant, C., Bebbington, P., & Hurry, J. (1981). The role of life events in depressive illness: Is there a substantial causal relation? Psychological Medicine, 11, 370-389.
132. Theorell, T. (1974). Life events before and after the onset of a premature myocardial infarction. In B. S. Dohrenwend & B. P. Dohrenwend (Eds.), Stressful Life Events (pp. 101-117). New York: Wiley.
133. Thoits, P. A. (1983). Dimensions of life events that influence psychological distress: An evaluation and synthesis of the literature. In H. B. Kaplan (Ed.), Psychosocial stress (pp. 33-303). New York: Academic Press, Inc.
134. Thoits, P. A. (1995). Stress, coping, and social support processes: Where are we? What next? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 5, 53-79.
135. Tourangeau, R. (2000). Remembering what happened: Memory errors and survey reports. In A. A. Stone, et al. (Eds.), The science of self-report: Implications for research and practice (pp. 29-47). Mahwah: NJ: Erlbaum.
136. Turner, C. F., Ku, L., Rogers, S. M., Lindberg, L. D., Pleck, J. H., & Sonenstein, F. L. (1998). Adolescent sexual behavior, drug use, and violence: Increased reporting with computer survey technology. Science, 280, 867-873.
137. Turner, R. J., & Lloyd, D. A. (1995). Lifetime trauma and mental health: The significance of cumulative adversity. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 360-376.
138. Turner, R. J., & Lloyd, D. A. (2004). Stress burden and the lifetime incidence of psychiatric disorder in young adults: Racial and ethnic contrasts. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 481-488.
139. Turner, R. J., & Wheaton, B. (1997). Checklist measurement of stressful life events. In S. Cohen et al. (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 29-58). New York: Oxford University Press.
140. Vinokur, A., & Sclzor, M. L. (1975). Desirable versus undesirable life events: Their relationship to stress and mental distress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 329-337.
141. Weitz, H. (1987). Direct examination of lay witness. In N. A. Goldberg & G. P. Joseph (Eds.), Preparing for and trying the civil lawsuit (pp. 189-219). New York: New York State Bar Association.
142. Wethington, E., Brown, G. W., & Kessler, R. C. (1997). Interview measurement of stressful events. In S. Cohen, et al. (Eds.). Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 59-79). New York: Oxford University Press.
143. Widom, C. S. (1998). Childhood victimization: Early adversity and subsequent psychopathology. In D. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress and psychopathology (pp. 81-95). New York: Oxford University Press.
144. Williams, C. L., & Uchiyama, C. (1989). Assessment of life events during adolescence: The use of self-report inventories. Adolescence, 14, 95-118.
145. Wittchen, H. U., Essau, C. A., Hecht, H., Teder, W., & Pfister, H. (1989). Reliability of life event assessments: Test-retest reliability and fall-off effects of the Munich Interview for the Assessment of Life Events and conditions. Journal of Affective Disorders, 16, 77-91.
146. Yager, J., Grant, I., Sweetwood, H. L., & Gerst, M. (1981). Life event reports by psychiatric patients, non-patients, and their partners. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 343-347.
147. Zautra, A. J., Guarnaccia, C. A., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1986) Measuring small life events. American Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 629-655.
148. Zautra, A. J., & Reich, J. W. (1983). Life events and perceptions of life quality: Developments in a two-factor approach. Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 121-132.
149. Zimmerman, M., O'Hara, M. W., & Corenthal, C. P. (1984). Symptom contamination of life event scales. Health Psychology, 3, 77-81.
150. Zimmerman, M., Pfohl, B., & Stangl, D. (1986, Spring). Life events assessment of depressed patients: A comparison of self-report and interview formats. Journal of Human Stress, 13-19.
151. Zuckerman, L., Oliver, J. M., Hollingsworth, H. H., & Austrin, H. R. (1986). A comparison of life events scoring methods as predictors of psychological symptomatology. Journal of Human Stress, 64-70.