Environmental Metals and Cardiovascular Disease in Adults: A Systematic Review Beyond Lead and Cadmium

Current environmental health reports

Volumn 3, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 416-433

  Nigra, Anne E ^a,b   Ruiz Hernandez, Adrian ^c,d   Redon, Josep ^c,d,e   Navas Acien, Ana ^a,b,f   Tellez Plaza, Maria ^a,d  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^b Department of Medicine   (United States)

^c HOSPITAL CLÍNICO UNIVERSITARIO   (Spain)

^d Instituto Universitario IVI INCLIVA   (Spain)

^e Instituto de Salud Carlos III   (Spain)

^f JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Atherosclerosis; Cardiovascular; Epidemiologic studies; Metals; Systematic review

Indexed keywords

CADMIUM; LEAD; METAL;

ANALYSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HUMAN; POLLUTANT; RISK FACTOR; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA;

CADMIUM; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; HUMANS; LEAD; METALS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 85016327932     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21965412     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40572-016-0117-9     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. Solenkova NV, Newman JD, Berger JS, Thurston G, Hochman JS, Lamas GA. Metal pollutants and cardiovascular disease: mechanisms and consequences of exposure. Am Heart J. 2014;168:812–22.
2. Lamas GA, Navas-Acien A, Mark DB, Lee KL. Heavy metals, cardiovascular disease, and the unexpected benefits of edetate chelation therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016;67:2411–8.
3. Revis NW, Zinsmeister AR, Bull R. Atherosclerosis and hypertension induction by lead and cadmium ions: an effect prevented by calcium ion. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 1981;78:6494–8.
4. Messner B, Bernhard D. Cadmium and cardiovascular diseases: cell biology, pathophysiology, and epidemiological relevance. Biometals. 2010;23:811–22.
5. Lamas GA, Goertz C, Boineau R, Mark DB, Rozema T, Nahin RL, et al. Effect of disodium EDTA chelation regimen on cardiovascular events in patients with previous myocardial infarction: the TACT randomized trial. JAMA. 2013;309:1241–50. This large, randomized, placebo-controlled trial found that edetate disodium chelation therapy significantly reduced cardiac events in stable post­myocardial infarction (MI) patients.
6. Jomova K, Valko M. Advances in metal-induced oxidative stress and human disease. Toxicology. 2011;283:65–87.
7. Valko M, Morris H, Cronin MTD. Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress. Curr Med Chem. 2005;12:1161–208.
8. Iavicoli I, Fontana L, Bergamaschi A. The effects of metals as endocrine disruptors. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2009;12:206–23.
9. Huang Y-CT, Ghio AJ. Vascular effects of ambient pollutant particles and metals. Curr Vasc Pharmacol United Arab Emirates. 2006;4:199–203.
10. Omanwar S, Fahim M. Mercury exposure and endothelial dysfunction: an interplay between nitric oxide and oxidative stress. Int J Toxicol. 2010;34:300–7.
11. Prozialeck WC, Edwards JR, Nebert DW, Woods JM, Barchowsky A, Atchison WD. The vascular system as a target of metal toxicity. Toxicol Sci. 2008;102:207–18.
12. Ruiz-Hernandez A, Kuo C-C, Rentero-Garrido P, Tang W-Y, Redon J, Ordovas JM, et al. Environmental chemicals and DNA methylation in adults: a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence. Clin Epigenetics. 2015;7:55.
13. Lee D-H, Jacobs DR, Porta M. Hypothesis: a unifying mechanism for nutrition and chemicals as lifelong modulators of DNA hypomethylation. Environ Health Perspect. 2009;117:1799–802.
14. Chia N, Wang L, Lu X, Senut M-C, Brenner C, Ruden DM. Hypothesis: environmental regulation of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine by oxidative stress. Epigenetics. 2011;6:853–6.
15. Dai H, Wang Z. Histone modification patterns and their responses to environment. Curr Environ Heal Reports. 2014;1:11–21.
16. Roman HA, Walsh TL, Coull BA, Dewailly É, Guallar E, Hattis D, et al. Evaluation of the cardiovascular effects of methylmercury exposures: current evidence supports development of a dose–response function for regulatory benefits analysis. Environ Health Perspect. 2011;119:607–14.
17. Guallar E, Sanz-Gallardo MI, van’t Veer P, Bode P, Aro A, Gómez-Aracena J, et al. Mercury, fish oils, and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(22):1747–54.
18. Mozaffarian D. Fish, mercury, selenium and cardiovascular risk: current evidence and unanswered questions. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2009;6:1894–916.
19. Tylenda CA, Fowler BA. Chapter 18—Antimony. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. 2007. p. 353–65.
20. Gebel T. Arsenic and antimony: comparative approach on mechanistic toxicology. Chem Biol Interact. 1997;107:131–44.
21. Kentner M, Leinemann M, Schaller KH, Weltle D, Lehnert G. External and internal antimony exposure in starter battery production. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1995;67:119–23.
22. Langárd S, Costa M. Chapter 24—Chromium. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. 2007. p. 487–510.
23. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Public Health Service. Toxicological Profile for Tungsten. 2005. Available from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/TP.asp?id=806&tid=157 [Accessed August 2016].
24. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Public Health Service. Toxicological Profile for Chromium. 2012. Available from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id=62&tid=17 [Accessed August 2016].
25. Garland M, Morris JS, Rosner BA, Stampfer MJ, Spate VL, Baskett CJ, et al. Toenail trace element levels as biomarkers: reproducibility over a 6-year period. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1993;2:493–7.
26. Oskarsson A, Reeves al. Chapter 20—Barium. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. 2007. p. 407–14.
27. Klein C, Costa M. Chapter 35—Nickel. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. 2007. p. 743–58.
28. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Public Health Service. Toxicological Profile for Nickel. 2005. Available from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp.asp?id=245&tid=44 [Accessed August 2016].
29. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Public Health Service. Toxicological Profile for Uranium. 2013. Available from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/TP.asp?id=440&tid=77 [Accessed August 2016].
30. Keith LS, Faroon OM, Fowler BA. Chapter 45—Uranium. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. 2007. p. 881–903.
31. Agarwal S, Zaman T, Tuzcu EM, Kapadia SR. Heavy metals and cardiovascular disease: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999–2006. Angiology. 2011;62:422–9.
32. Navas-Acien A, Silbergeld EK, Sharrett R, Calderon-Aranda E, Selvin E, Guallar E. Metals in urine and peripheral arterial disease. Environ Health Perspect. 2005;113:164–9.
33. Mendy A, Gasana J, Vieira ER. Urinary heavy metals and associated medical conditions in the US adult population. Int J Environ Health Res England. 2012;22:105–18.
34. Lind PM, Olsen L, Lind L. Circulating levels of metals are related to carotid atherosclerosis in elderly. Sci Total Environ. 2012;416:80–8.
35. Guo J, Su L, Zhao X, Xu Z, Chen G. Relationships between urinary antimony levels and both mortalities and prevalence of cancers and heart diseases in general US population, NHANES 1999–2010. Sci Total Environ. 2016. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.07.011. This large nationally representative prospective study from the US evaluated the association of antimony with self-reported heart disease prevalence and heart disease mortality after 11-year follow-up.
36. Frustaci A, Magnavita N, Chimenti C, Caldarulo M, Sabbioni E, Pietra R, et al. Marked elevation of myocardial trace elements in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy compared with secondary cardiac dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;33:1578–83.
37. Yoshinaga J, Suzuki T, Morita M, Hayakawa M. Trace elements in ribs of elderly people and elemental variation in the presence of chronic diseases. Sci Total Environ. 1995;162:239–52.
38. Abraham AS, Sonnenblick M, Eni M, Shemesh O, Batt AP. Serum chromium in patients with recent and old myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 1980;99:604–6.
39. Afridi HI, Kazi TG, Kazi GH, Jamali MK, Shar GQ. Essential trace and toxic element distribution in the scalp hair of Pakistani myocardial infarction patients and controls. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2006;113:19–34.
40. Afridi HI, Kazi TG, Kazi N, Sirajuddin KGA, Baig JA. Chromium and manganese levels in biological samples of Pakistani myocardial infarction patients at different stages as related to controls. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2011;142:259–73.
41. Anderson TW, Neri LC, Schreiber GB, Talbot FD, Zdrojewski A. Letter: Ischemic heart disease, water hardness and myocardial magnesium. Can Med Assoc J. 1975;113:199–203.
42. el-Yazigi A, Hannan N, Raines DA. Urinary excretion of chromium, copper, and manganese in diabetes mellitus and associated disorders. Diabetes Res. 1991;18:129–34.
43. Fujimoto S. Studies on the relationships between blood trace metal concentrations and the clinical status of patients with cerebrovascular disease, gastric cancer and diabetes mellitus. Hokkaido Igaky Zasshi. 1987;62:913–32.
44. Huang BX, Lin SQ, Chen SY, Zhou G, Yin F, Lou ZP, et al. Hair chromium levels in patients with vascular diseases. Biol Trace Elem Res. 1991;29:133–7.
45. Li YQ, Zhao YH, Cao YH, Shao MZ. Urine-Cr assay with diphenylcarbazide. Hua Xi Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao. 1989;20:85–7.
46. Pan TC, Chen YL, Wu WJ. Serum trace metals in Blackfoot disease patients. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 1996;12:555–60.
47. Punsar S, Wolf W, Mertz W, Karvonen MJ. Urinary chromium excretion and atherosclerotic manifestations in two Finnish male populations. Ann Clin Res. 1977;9:79–83.
48. Tan C, Chen H, Xia C. The prediction of cardiovascular disease based on trace element contents in hair and a classifier of boosting decision stumps. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2009;129:9–19.
49. Tang Y-R, Zhang S-Q, Xiong Y, Zhao Y, Fu H, Zhang H-P, et al. Studies of five microelement contents in human serum, hair, and fingernails correlated with aged hypertension and coronary heart disease. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2003;92:97–104.
50. Vlad M, Caseanu E, Uza G, Petrescu M. Concentration of copper, zinc, chromium, iron and nickel in the abdominal aorta of patients deceased with coronary heart disease. J Trace Elem Electrolytes Health Dis. 1994;8:111–4.
51. Zerbino DD, Solomenchuk TN. [Myocardial infarction at the age under 50: influence of occupational xenobiotics (analysis of chemical elements in hair of patients)]. Med Tr Prom Ekol. 2007;17–21.
52. Avtandilov GG. Age dynamics of the trace element content of normal and atherosclerosis-modified portions of the human aorta. Arkh Patol. 1967;29:40–2.
53. Bierenbaum ML, Fleischman AI, Dunn J, Arnold J. Possible toxic water factor in coronary heart-disease. Lancet (London, England). 1975;1:1008–10.
54. Conri C, Simonoff M, Besse P, Llabador Y, Fleury B, Simonoff GN. [Fall of plasma chromium in coronary diseases]. Presse Med. 1986. p. 1931.
55. Kuang P, Wu W, Lang S. Trace elements and ischemic cerebral vascular disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1993;676:340–1.
56. Mozhaitseva AG. Blood level dynamics of copper, titanium and chromium in patients with ischemic heart disease. Kardiologiia. 1970;10:147–8.
57. Polikarpov BM. Disorder of chromium metabolism in myocardial infarct. Kardiologiia. 1975;15:130–2.
58. Schroeder HA. The role of trace elements in cardiovascular diseases. Med Clin North Am. 1974;58:381–96.
59. She LM, Hu CH, Luo ZM, Zhang DZ, Wang NM, Chen SQ, et al. Chromium content of the hair of patients with acute cerebrovascular diseases. Hua Xi Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao. 1987;18:160–2.
60. Takemoto K, Kawai H, Kuwahara T, Nishina M, Adachi S. Metal concentrations in human lung tissue, with special reference to age, sex, cause of death, emphysema and contamination of lung tissue. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1991;62:579–86.
61. Wang XF, Ma TG, Xi J. Relation of trace elements and lipids in erythrocytes and coronary artery stenosis. Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi. 1988;16:347–9,383.
62. Afridi HI, Kazi TG, Kazi N, Kandhro GA, Baig JA, Jamali MK, et al. Association of environmental toxic elements in biological samples of myocardial infarction patients at different stages. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2011;141:26–40.
63. Afridi HI, Kazi TG, Kazi N, Kandhro GA, Baig JA, Shah AQ, et al. Evaluation of toxic elements in scalp hair samples of myocardial infarction patients at different stages as related to controls. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2010;134:1–12.
64. Khan SN, Rahman MA, Samad A. Trace elements in serum from Pakistani patients with acute and chronic ischemic heart disease and hypertension. Clin Chem. 1984;30:644–8.
65. Leach CNJ, Linden JV, Hopfer SM, Crisostomo MC, Sunderman FWJ. Nickel concentrations in serum of patients with acute myocardial infarction or unstable angina pectoris. Clin Chem. 1985;31:556–60.
66. Sukumar A, Subramanian R. Relative element levels in the paired samples of scalp hair and fingernails of patients from New Delhi. Sci Total Environ. 2007;372:474–9.
67. Chen H, Tan C, Lin Z, Wu T, Diao Y. A feasibility study of diagnosing cardiovascular diseases based on blood/urine element analysis and consensus models. Comput Biol Med. 2013;43:865–9.
68. Howard JM. Serum nickel in myocardial infarction. Clin. Chem. 1980. p. 1515.
69. McNeely MD, Sunderman FWJ, Nechay MW, Levine H. Abnormal concentrations of nickel in serum in cases of myocardial infarction, stroke, burns, hepatic cirrhosis, and uremia. Clin Chem. 1971;17:1123–8.
70. Sakharchuk VM, Iatsula GS, Rakitskaia NV. Clinico-experimental study of levels of several microelements in arteriosclerosis. Kardiologiia. 1972;12:131–3.
71. Babadzhanov SN. Content of zinc, vanadium, and iron in the whole blood and their balance in arteriosclerosis and hypertensive disease. Kardiologiia. 1975;15:133–4.
72. Longnecker MP, Berlin JA, Orza MJ, Chalmers TC. A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption in relation to risk of breast cancer. JAMA. 1988;260:652–6.
73. US National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health. Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention. How Tobacco smoke causes disease: the biology and behavioral basis for smoking-attributable disease: a report of the Surgeon General; 2010. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21452462 [Accessed August 2016].
74. Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C. Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ. 1997;315:629–34.
75. Zhang J, Yu KF. What’s the relative risk? a method of correcting the odds ratio in cohort studies of common outcomes. JAMA. 1998;280:1690–1.
76. Rajpathak S, Rimm EB, Li T, Morris JS, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, et al. Lower toenail chromium in men with diabetes and cardiovascular disease compared with healthy men. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:2211–6.
77. Higgins JPT, Thompson SG. Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta-analysis. Stat Med. 2002;21:1539–58.
78. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Public Health Service. Toxicological profile for antimony and compounds. Atlanta, GA. 1992. Available from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp23.pdf [Accessed August 2016].
79. Iyengar GV, Tanner JT, Wolf WR, Zeisler R. Preparation of a mixed human diet material for the determination of nutrient elements, selected toxic elements and organic nutrients: a preliminary report. Sci Total Environ. 1987;61:235–52.
80. Sundar S, Chakravarty J. Antimony toxicity. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2010;7:4267–77.
81. Potkonjak V, Pavlovich M. Antimoniosis: a particular form of pneumoconiosis. I. Etiology, clinical and x-ray findings. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1983;51:199–207.
82. Taylor PJ. Acute intoxication from antimony trichloride. Br J Ind Med. 1966;23:318–21.
83. White GP, Mathias CG, Davin JS. Dermatitis in workers exposed to antimony in a melting process. J Occup Med. 1993;35:392–5.
84. Brieger H, Semisch CW, Stasney J, Piatnek DA. Industrial antimony poisoning. Ind Med Surg. 1954;23:521–3.
85. Schnorr TM, Steenland K, Thun MJ, Rinsky RA. Mortality in a cohort of antimony smelter workers. Am J Ind Med. 1995;27:759–70.
86. Shiue I. Higher urinary heavy metal, arsenic, and phthalate concentrations in people with high blood pressure: US NHANES, 2009–2010. Blood Press. 2014;23:363–9.
87. Menke A, Guallar E, Cowie CC. Metals in urine and diabetes in U.S. adults. Diabetes. 2016;65:164–71.
88. Guerin PJ, Olliaro P, Sundar S, Boelaert M, Croft SL, Desjeux P, et al. Visceral leishmaniasis: current status of control, diagnosis, and treatment, and a proposed research and development agenda. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2002. p. 494–501.
89. Chulay JD, Spencer HC, Mugambi M. Electrocardiographic changes during treatment of leishmaniasis with pentavalent antimony (sodium stibogluconate). Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1985;34:702–9.
90. Wey HE, Richards D, Tirmenstein MA, Mathias PI, Toraason M. The role of intracellular calcium in antimony-induced toxicity in cultured cardiac myocytes. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol Academic Press. 1997;145:202–10.
91. Alvarez M, Malécot CO, Gannier F, Lignon JM. Antimony-induced cardiomyopathy in guinea-pig and protection by L-carnitine. Br J Pharmacol. 2005;144:17–27.
92. Greenwood NN, Earnshaw A. Chemistry of the elements. 2nd ed. Butterworth-Heinemann; 1997.
93. Gonzalez AR, Ndung’u K, Flegal AR. Natural occurrence of hexavalent chromium in the Aromas Red Sands Aquifer. California Environ Sci Technol. 2005;39:5505–11.
94. Costello RB, Dwyer JT, Bailey RL. Chromium supplements for glycemic control in type 2 diabetes: limited evidence of effectiveness. Nutr Rev. 2016;74:455–68.
95. Althuis MD, Jordan NE, Ludington EA, Wittes JT. Glucose and insulin responses to dietary chromium supplements: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76:148–55.
96. Suksomboon N, Poolsup N, Yuwanakorn A. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy and safety of chromium supplementation in diabetes. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2014;39:292–306.
97. Guimarães MM, Carvalho ACMS, Silva MS. Effect of chromium supplementation on the glucose homeostasis and anthropometry of type 2 diabetic patients: double blind, randomized clinical trial: chromium, glucose homeostasis and anthropometry. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2016;36:65–72.
98. Paiva AN, de Lima JG, de Medeiros ACQ, Figueiredo HAO, de Andrade RL, Ururahy MAG, et al. Beneficial effects of oral chromium picolinate supplementation on glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes: a randomized clinical study. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2015;32:66–72.
99. Davis CM, Vincent JB. Chromium oligopeptide activates insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activity. Biochemistry. 1997;36:4382–5.
100. Samitz MH, Katz SA, Scheiner DM, Gross PR. Chromium-protein interactions. Acta Derm Venereol. 1969;49:142–6.
101. Kleinfeld M, Rosso A. Ulcerations of the nasal septum due to inhalation of chromic acid mist. Ind Med Surg. 1965;34:242–3.
102. Fristedt B, Lindqvist B, Schuetz A, Ovrum P. Survival in a case of acute oral chromic acid poisoning with acute renal failure treated by haemodialysis. Acta Med Scand. 1965;177:153–9.
103. Costa M. Toxicity and carcinogenicity of Cr(VI) in animal models and humans. Crit Rev Toxicol. 1997;27:431–42.
104. Gylseth B, Gundersen N, Langård S. Evaluation of chromium exposure based on a simplified method for urinary chromium determination. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1977;3:28–31.
105. Stern RM. Process-dependent risk of delayed health effects for welders. Environ Health Perspect. 1981;41:235–53.
106. Schroeder HA, Balassa JJ, Tipton IH. Abnormal trace metals in man—chromium. J Chronic Dis. 1962;15:941–64.
107. Caruso RV, O’Connor RJ, Stephens WE, Cummings KM, Fong GT. Toxic metal concentrations in cigarettes obtained from U.S. smokers in 2009: results from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) United States survey cohort. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11:202–17.
108. Tossavainen A, Nurminen M, Mutanen P, Tola S. Application of mathematical modelling for assessing the biological half-times of chromium and nickel in field studies. Br J Ind Med. 1980;37:285–91.
109. Cheng L, Sonntag DM, de Boer J, Dixon K. Chromium(VI)-induced mutagenesis in the lungs of big blue transgenic mice. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 2000;19:239–49.
110. Costa M, Zhitkovich A, Taioli E, Toniolo P. Preliminary report on a simple new assay for DNA-protein cross-links as a biomarker of exposures experienced by welders. J Toxicol Environ Health. 1993;40:217–22.
111. Wise SS, Holmes AL, Wise JP. Hexavalent chromium-induced DNA damage and repair mechanisms. Rev Environ Health. 2008;23:39–57.
112. Abraham AS, Brooks BA, Eylath U. Chromium and cholesterol-induced atherosclerosis in rabbits. Ann Nutr Metab. 1991;35:203–7.
113. Abraham AS, Sonnenblick M, Eini M. The action of chromium on serum lipids and on atherosclerosis in cholesterol-fed rabbits. Atherosclerosis. 1982;42:185–95.
114. Alissa EM, Bahjri SM, Ahmed WH, Al-Ama N, Ferns GAA. Chromium status and glucose tolerance in Saudi men with and without coronary artery disease. Biol Trace Elem Res. 2009;131:215–28.
115. Guallar E, Jiménez FJ, van’t Veer P, Bode P, Riemersma RA, Gómez-Aracena J. Low toenail chromium concentration and increased risk of nonfatal myocardial infarction. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;162:157–64.
116. Niskanen J, Marniemi J, Piironen O, Maatela J, Maki J, Vuori I, et al. Trace element levels in serum and urine of subjects died of coronary heart disease. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol. 1986;59 Suppl 7:340–3.
117. Greenland S. Quantitative methods in the review of epidemiologic literature. Epidemiol Rev. 1987;9:1–30.
118. Witten ML, Sheppard PR, Witten BL. Tungsten toxicity. Chem Biol Interact. 2012;196:87–8.
119. Grimes DJ, Ficklin WH, Meier AL, McHugh JB. Anomalous gold, antimony, arsenic, and tungsten in ground water and alluvium around disseminated gold deposits along the Getchell Trend, Humboldt County, Nevada. J Geochem Explor. 1995;52:351–71.
120. Lemus R, Venezia CF. An update to the toxicological profile for water-soluble and sparingly soluble tungsten substances. Crit Rev Toxicol. 2015;45:388–411.
121. Lison D. Human toxicity of cobalt-containing dust and experimental studies on the mechanism of interstitial lung disease (hard metal disease). Crit Rev Toxicol. 1996;26:585–616.
122. Moulin JJ, Wild P, Romazini S, Lasfargues G, Peltier A, Bozec C, et al. Lung cancer risk in hard-metal workers. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;148:241–8.
123. McInturf SM, Bekkedal MYV, Wilfong E, Arfsten D, Chapman G, Gunasekar PG. The potential reproductive, neurobehavioral and systemic effects of soluble sodium tungstate exposure in Sprague–Dawley rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 2011;254:133–7.
124. Brondino CD, Romão MJ, Moura I, Moura JJ. Molybdenum and tungsten enzymes: the xanthine oxidase family. Curr Opin Chem Biol. 2006;10:109–14.
125. Graczyk H, Lewinski N, Zhao J, Sauvain J-J, Suarez G, Wild P, et al. Increase in oxidative stress levels following welding fume inhalation: a controlled human exposure study. Part Fibre Toxicol. 2016;13:31.
126. Lasfargues G, Lison D, Maldague P, Lauwerys R. Comparative study of the acute lung toxicity of pure cobalt powder and cobalt-tungsten carbide mixture in rat. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1992;112:41–50.
127. Shiue I, Hristova K. Higher urinary heavy metal, phthalate and arsenic concentrations accounted for 3–19 % of the population attributable risk for high blood pressure: US NHANES, 2009–2012. Hypertens Res. 2014;37:1075–81.
128. Tellez-Plaza M, Tang W-Y, Shang Y, Umans JG, Francesconi KA, Goessler W, et al. Association of global DNA methylation and global DNA hydroxymethylation with metals and other exposures in human blood DNA samples. Environ Health Perspect. 2014;122:946–54.
129. Tyrrell J, Galloway TS, Abo-Zaid G, Melzer D, Depledge MH, Osborne NJ. High urinary tungsten concentration is associated with stroke in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999–2010. PLoS One. 2013;8:e77546. This large nationally representative cross-sectional study from the US evaluated the association of tungsten with self-reported prevalence of stroke and cardiovascular disease.
130. Bargagli R, Nimis PL, Monaci F. Lichen biomonitoring of trace element deposition in urban, industrial and reference areas of Italy. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 1997;11:173–5.
131. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. US Public Health Service. Toxicological Profile for Barium. 2007. Available from: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/TP.asp?id=327&tid=57 [Accessed August 2016].
132. World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria, No. 107—Barium. WHO. World Health Organization; 1990. Available from: http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc107.htm [Accessed August 2016].
133. Choudhury H, Cary R, United Nations Environment Programme, International Labour Organisation, World Health Organization, Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals, et al. Barium and barium compounds: first draft. 2001. Available from: http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/cicad/en/cicad33.pdf [Accessed August 2016].
134. Brenniman GR, Kojola WH, Levy PS, Carnow BW, Namekata T. High barium levels in public drinking water and its association with elevated blood pressure. Arch Environ Health. 1981;36:28–32.
135. Wones RG, Stadler BL, Frohman LA. Lack of effect of drinking water barium on cardiovascular risk factors. Environ Health Perspect. 1990;85:355–9.
136. Schroeder HA, Tipton IH, Nason AP. Trace metals in man: strontium and barium. J Chronic Dis. 1972;25:491–517.
137. Rundo J. The retention of barium-133 in man. Int J Radiat Biol Relat Stud Phys Chem Med. 1967;13:301–2.
138. Nickel. (Environmental Health Criteria 108). 383 Seiten, 36 Tab. World Health Organization, Geneva 1991.;36:102–102.
139. Rojas E, Herrera LA, Poirier LA, Ostrosky-Wegman P. Are metals dietary carcinogens? Mutat Res Toxicol Environ Mutagen. 1999;443:157–81.
140. Smith CJ, Livingston SD, Doolittle DJ. An international literature survey of “IARC Group I carcinogens” reported in mainstream cigarette smoke. Food Chem Toxicol. 1997;35:1107–30.
141. Lee YW, Klein CB, Kargacin B, Salnikow K, Kitahara J, Dowjat K, et al. Carcinogenic nickel silences gene expression by chromatin condensation and DNA methylation: a new model for epigenetic carcinogens. Mol Cell Biol. 1995;15:2547–57.
142. Lee Y-W, Broday L, Costa M. Effects of nickel on DNA methyltransferase activity and genomic DNA methylation levels. Mutat Res Toxicol Environ Mutagen. 1998;415:213–8.
143. Nielsen GD, Søderberg U, Jørgensen PJ, Templeton DM, Rasmussen SN, Andersen KE, et al. Absorption and retention of nickel from drinking water in relation to food intake and nickel sensitivity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol Acad Press. 1999;154:67–75.
144. Onkelinx C, Becker J, Sunderman FW. Compartmental analysis of the metabolism of 63Ni(II) in rats and rabbits. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol. 1973;6:663–76.
145. Guéguen Y, Souidi M, Baudelin C, Dudoignon N, Grison S, Dublineau I, et al. Short-term hepatic effects of depleted uranium on xenobiotic and bile acid metabolizing cytochrome P450 enzymes in the rat. Arch Toxicol. 2006;80:187–95.
146. Monleau M, De Méo M, Frelon S, Paquet F, Donnadieu-Claraz M, Duménil G, et al. Distribution and genotoxic effects after successive exposure to different uranium oxide particles inhaled by rats. Inhal Toxicol. 2006;18:885–94.
147. Miller AC, Stewart M, Brooks K, Shi L, Page N. Depleted uranium-catalyzed oxidative DNA damage: absence of significant alpha particle decay. J Inorg Biochem. 2002;91:246–52.
148. Dorian P, Penkoske PA, Witkowski FX. Order in disorder: effect of barium on ventricular fibrillation. Can J Cardiol. 1996;12:399–406.
149. Racine R, Grandcolas L, Grison S, Stefani J, Delissen O, Gourmelon P, et al. Cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) activity is modified after chronic ingestion of depleted uranium in the rat. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2010;120:60–6.
150. Hornung R, Reed L. Estimation of average concentration in the presence of nondetectable values. Appl Occup Env Hyg. 1990;5:46–51.
151. Tellez-Plaza M, Navas-Acien A, Crainiceanu CM, Sharrett AR, Guallar E. Cadmium and peripheral arterial disease: gender differences in the 1999–2004 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Epidemiol. 2010;172:671–81.
152. Tellez-Plaza M, Navas-Acien A, Menke A, Crainiceanu CM, Pastor-Barriuso R, Guallar E. Cadmium exposure and all cause and cardiovascular mortality in the US general population. Environ Health Perspect. 2012;20(7):1017–22.
153. Franchini I, Mutti A, Cavatorta A, Corradi A, Cosi A, Olivetti G, et al. Nephrotoxicity of chromium. Remarks on an experimental and epidemiological investigation. Contrib Nephrol. 1978;10:98–110.
154. Wang X, Qin Q, Xu X, Xu J, Wang J, Zhou J, et al. Chromium-induced early changes in renal function among ferrochromium-producing workers. Toxicology. 1994;90:93–101.
155. Petersen R, Mikkelsen S, Thomsen OF. Chronic interstitial nephropathy after plasma cutting in stainless steel. Occup Environ Med. 1994;51:259–61.
156. Jolliffe DS. Nephrotoxicity of pentavalent antimonials. Lancet. 1985;1:584.
157. Vicente-Vicente L, Quiros Y, Pérez-Barriocanal F, López-Novoa JM, López-Hernández FJ, Morales AI. Nephrotoxicity of uranium: pathophysiological, diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. Toxicol Sci. 2010;118:324–47.
158. Voinescu GC, Shoemaker M, Moore H, Khanna R, Nolph KD. The relationship between urine osmolality and specific gravity. Am J Med Sci. 2002;323:39–42.
159. Pang Y, Jones MR, Tellez-Plaza M, Guallar E, Vaidya D, Post WS, et al. Association of geography and ambient air pollution with urine metal concentrations in six US cities: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2016;15:13(3).
160. Pang Y, Peng RD, Jones MR, Francesconi KA, Goessler W, Howard BV, et al. Metal mixtures in urban and rural populations in the US: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis and the Strong Heart Study. Environ Res. 2016;147:356–64.
161. Mathers CD, Loncar D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS Med. 2006;3:e442.