Muscle Ultrasound and Sarcopenia in Older Individuals: A Clinical Perspective

Journal of the American Medical Directors Association

Volumn 18, Issue 4, 2017, Pages 290-300

  Ticinesi, Andrea ^a,b   Meschi, Tiziana ^a,b   Narici, Marco V ^c   Lauretani, Fulvio ^a,b   Maggio, Marcello ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PARMA   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL OF PARMA   (Italy)

^c UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

diaphragm ultrasound; fascicle length; geriatrics; muscle thickness; pennation angle; skeletal muscle mass; Ultrasonography

Indexed keywords

BODY FAT; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DUAL ENERGY X RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY; ECHOGRAPHY; HUMAN; MORTALITY; MUSCLE BLOOD VESSEL; MUSCLE MASS; MUSCLE THICKNESS; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PREDICTIVE VALUE; QUADRICEPS FEMORIS MUSCLE; REVIEW; SARCOPENIA; AGED; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY; MIDDLE AGED; PHYSIOLOGY; SKELETAL MUSCLE; VERY ELDERLY;

AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; HUMANS; MIDDLE AGED; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; SARCOPENIA; ULTRASONOGRAPHY;

EID: 85012016561     PISSN: 15258610     EISSN: 15389375     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jamda.2016.11.013     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. 1 Baumgartner, R.N., Koehler, K.M., Gallagher, D., et al. Epidemiology of sarcopenia among the elderly in New Mexico. Am J Epidemiol 147 (1998), 755–763.
2. 2 Newman, A.B., Kupelian, V., Visser, M., et al. Sarcopenia: Alternative definitions and associations with lower extremity functions. J Am Geriatr Soc 51 (2003), 1602–1609.
3. 3 Delmonico, M.J., Harris, T.B., Lee, J.S., et al. Alternative definitions of sarcopenia, lower extremity performance, and functional impairment with aging in older men and women. J Am Geriatr Soc 55 (2007), 769–774.
4. 4 Cruz-Jentoft, A.J., Baeyens, J.P., Bauer, J.M., et al. Sarcopenia: European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age Ageing 39 (2010), 412–423.
5. 5 Muscaritoli, M., Anker, S.D., Argilés, J., et al. Consensus definition of sarcopenia, cachexia and pre-cachexia: Joint document elaborated by Special Interest Groups (SIG) “Cachexia-Anorexia in Chronic Wasting Diseases” and “Nutrition in Geriatrics”. Clin Nutr 29 (2010), 154–159.
6. 6 Fielding, R.A., Vellas, B., Evans, W.J., et al. Sarcopenia: An undiagnosed condition in older adults. Current consensus definition: Prevalence, etiology, and consequences. J Am Med Dir Assoc 12 (2011), 249–256.
7. 7 Cederholm, T., Morley, J.E., Sarcopenia: The new definitions. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 18 (2015), 1–4.
8. 8 Dupuy, C., Lauwers-Cances, V., Guyonnet, S., et al. Searching for a relevant definition of sarcopenia: Results from the cross-sectional EPIDOS study. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 6 (2015), 144–154.
9. 9 Batsis, J.A., Barre, L.K., Mackenzie, T.A., et al. Variation in the prevalence of sarcopenia and sarcopenic obesity in older adults associated with different research definitions: Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999–2004. J Am Geriatr Soc 61 (2013), 974–980.
10. 10 Bijlsma, A.Y., Meskers, C.G., Ling, C.H., et al. Defining sarcopenia: the impact of different diagnostic criteria on the prevalence of sarcopenia in a large middle aged cohort. Age 35 (2013), 871–881.
11. 11 Dam, T.T., Peters, K.W., Fragala, M., et al. An evidence-based comparison of operational criteria for the presence of sarcopenia. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 69 (2014), 584–590.
12. 12 Heymsfield, S.B., Adamek, M., Gonzalez, M.C., et al. Assessing skeletal muscle mass: Historical overview and state of the art. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 5 (2014), 9–18.
13. 13 Rubbieri, G., Mossello, E., Di Bari, M., Techniques for the diagnosis of sarcopenia. Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab 11 (2014), 181–184.
14. 14 Heymsfield, S.B., Gonzalez, M.C., Lu, J., et al. Skeletal muscle mass and quality: Evolution of modern measurement concepts in the context of sarcopenia. Proc Nutr Soc 74 (2015), 355–366.
15. 15 Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S.B., Baumgartner, R.N., Ross, R., Estimation of skeletal muscle mass by bioelectrical impedance analysis. J Appl Physiol 89 (2000), 465–471.
16. 16 Roubenoff, R., Baumgartner, R.N., Harris, T.B., et al. Application of bioelectrical impedance analysis to elderly populations. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 52A (1997), M129–M136.
17. 17 Chen, Z., Wang, Z., Lohman, T., et al. Dual x-ray absorptiometry is a valid tool for assessing skeletal muscle mass in older women. J Nutr 137 (2007), 2275–2280.
18. 18 Kistorp, C.N., Svendesen, O.L., Body composition analysis by dual energy x-ray absorptiometry in female diabetics differ between manufacturers. Eur J Clin Nutr 51 (1997), 449–454.
19. 19 Scafoglieri, A., Deklerck, R., Tresignie, J., et al. Assessment of regional adipose tissue depots: A DXA and CT comparison in cadavers of elderly persons. Exp Gerontol 48 (2013), 985–991.
20. 20 Scafoglieri, A., Clarys, J.P., Bauer, J.M., et al. Predicting appendicular lean and fat mass with bioelectrical impedance analysis in older adults with physical function decline—The PROVIDE study. Clin Nutr, 2016 [Epub ahead of print].
21. 21 Camina Martin, M.A., de Mateo Silleras, B., Redondo del Rio, M.P., Body composition analysis in older adults with dementia. Anthropometry and bioelectrical impedance analysis: A critical review. Eur J Clin Nutr 68 (2014), 1228–1233.
22. 22 Rösler, A., Lehmann, F., Krause, T., et al. Nutritional and hydration status in elderly subjects: Clinical rating versus bioimpedance analysis. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 50 (2010), e81–e85.
23. 23 Reiss, J., Igsleder, B., Kreutzer, M., et al. Case finding for sarcopenia in geriatric inpatients: Performance of bioimpedance analysis in comparison to dual x-ray absorptiometry. BMC Geriatr, 16, 2016, 52.
24. 24 Pillen, S., van Alfen, N., Skeletal muscle ultrasound. Neurol Res 33 (2011), 1016–1024.
25. 25 Dupont, A.C., Sauerbrei, E.E., Fenton, P.V., et al. Real-rime sonography to estimate muscle thickness: Comparison with MRI and CT. J Clin Ultrasound 29 (2001), 230–236.
26. 26 Juul-Kristensen, B., Bojsen-Møller, F., Holst, E., Ekdahl, C., Comparison of muscle sizes and moment arms of two rotator cuff muscles measured by ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging. Eur J Ultrasound 11 (2000), 161–173.
27. 27 Arbeille, P., Kerbeci, P., Capri, A., et al. Quantification of muscle volume by echography: Comparison with MRI data on subjects in long-term bed rest. Ultrasound Med Biol 35 (2009), 1092–1097.
28. 28 Mendis, M.D., Wilson, S.J., Stanton, W., Hides, J.A., Validity of real-time ultrasound imaging to measure anterior hip muscle size: A comparison with magnetic resonance imaging. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 40 (2010), 577–581.
29. 29 Macrae, P.R., Jones, R.D., Myall, D.J., et al. Cross-sectional area of the anterior belly of the digastric muscle: Comparison of MRI and ultrasound measures. Dysphagia 28 (2013), 375–380.
30. 30 Worsley, P.R., Kitsell, F., Samuel, D., Stokes, M., Validity of measuring distal vastus lateralis muscle using rehabilitative ultrasound imaging versus magnetic resonance imaging. Man Ther 19 (2014), 259–263.
31. 31 Sergi, G., Trevisan, C., Veronese, N., et al. Imaging of sarcopenia. Eur J Radiol 85 (2016), 1519–1524.
32. 32 Harris-Love, M.O., Monfaredi, R., Ismail, C., et al. Quantitative ultrasound: Measurement considerations for the assessment of muscular dystrophy and sarcopenia. Front Aging Neurosci, 6, 2014, 172.
33. 33 Narici, M.V., Manganaris, C.N., Reeves, N.D., Capodaglio, P., Effect of aging on human muscle architecture. J Appl Physiol 95 (2003), 2229–2234.
34. 34 Morse, C.I., Thom, J.M., Reeves, N.D., et al. In vivo physiological cross-sectional area and specific force are reduced in the gastrocnemius of elderly men. J Appl Physiol 99 (2005), 1050–1055.
35. 35 Takai, Y., Ohta, M., Akagi, R., et al. Applicability of ultrasound muscle thickness measurements for predicting fat-free mass in elderly population. J Nutr Health Aging 18 (2014), 579–585.
36. 36 Abe, T., Patterson, K.M., Stover, C.D., et al. Site-specific thigh muscle loss as an independent phenomenon for age-related muscle loss in middle-aged and older men and women. Age 36 (2014), 1353–1358.
37. 37 Berger, J., Bunout, D., Barrera, G., et al. Rectus femoris (RF) ultrasound for the assessment of muscle mass in older people. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 61 (2015), 33–38.
38. 38 Ismail, C., Zabal, J., Hernandez, H.J., et al. Diagnostic ultrasound estimates of muscle mass and muscle quality discriminate between women with and without sarcopenia. Front Physiol, 6, 2015, 302.
39. 39 Minetto, M.A., Caresio, C., Menapace, T., et al. Ultrasound-based detection of low muscle mass for diagnosis of sarcopenia in older adults. PM R 8 (2016), 453–462.
40. 40 Kuyumcu, M.E., Halil, M., Kara, O., et al. Ultrasonographic evaluation of the calf muscle mass and architecture in elderly patients with and without sarcopenia. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 65 (2016), 218–224.
41. 41 Seymour, J.M., Ward, K., Sidhu, P.S., et al. Ultrasound measurement of rectus femoris cross-sectional area and the relationship with quadriceps strength in COPD. Thorax 64 (2009), 418–423.
42. 42 Thomaes, T., Thomis, M., Onkelinx, S., et al. Reliability and validity of ultrasound technique to measure the rectus femoris muscle diameter in older CAD-patients. BMC Med Imaging, 12, 2012, 7.
43. 43 Tandon, P., Low, G., Mourtzakis, M., et al. A model to identify sarcopenia in patients with cirrhosis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 14 (2016), 1473–1480.
44. 44 Reeves, N.D., Maganaris, C.N., Narici, M.V., Ultrasonographic assessment of human skeletal muscle size. Eur J Appl Physiol 91 (2004), 116–118.
45. 45 Sanada, K., Kearns, C.F., Midorikawa, T., Abe, T., Prediction and validation of total and regional skeletal muscle mass by ultrasound in Japanese adults. Eur J Appl Physiol 96 (2006), 24–31.
46. 46 Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S.B., Wang, Z., Ross, R., Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18-88 years. J Appl Physiol 89 (2000), 81–88.
47. 47 Narici, M.V., Maffulli, N., Sarcopenia: Characteristics, mechanisms and functional significance. Br Med Bull 95 (2010), 139–159.
48. 48 Abe, T., Kawakami, Y., Kondo, M., Fukunaga, T., Comparison of ultrasound-measured age-related site-specific muscle loss between healthy Japanese and German men. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 31 (2011), 320–325.
49. 49 Abe, T., Sakamaki, M., Yasuda, T., et al. Age-related, site-specific muscle loss in 1507 Japanese men and women aged 20 to 95 years. J Sports Sci Med 10 (2011), 145–150.
50. 50 Ogawa, M., Yasuda, T., Abe, T., Component characteristics of thigh muscle volume in young and older healthy men. Clin Physiol Funct Imaging 32 (2012), 89–93.
51. 51 Frontera, W.R., Reid, K.F., Phillips, E.M., et al. Muscle fiber size and function in elderly humans: A longitudinal study. J Appl Physiol 105 (2008), 637–642.
52. 52 Abe, T., Thiebaud, R.S., Loenneke, J.P., et al. Prevalence of site-specific thigh sarcopenia in Japanese men and women. Age 36 (2014), 417–426.
53. 53 Abe, T., Loenneke, J.P., Thiebaud, R.S., Fukunaga, T., Age-related site-specific muscle wasting of upper and lower extremities and trunk in Japanese men and women. Age 36 (2014), 813–821.
54. 54 Abe, T., Kondo, M., Kawakami, Y., Fukunaga, T., Prediction equations for body-composition of Japanese adults by B-mode ultrasound. Am J Hum Biol 6 (1994), 161–170.
55. 55 Abe, T., Loenneke, J.P., Young, K.C., et al. Validity of ultrasound prediction equations for total and regional muscularity in middle-aged and older men and women. Ultrasound Med Biol 41 (2015), 557–564.
56. 56 Abe, T., Ogawa, M., Loenneke, J.P., et al. Relationship between site-specific loss of thigh muscle and gait performance in women: The HIREGASAKI study. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 55 (2012), e21–e25.
57. 57 Narici, M., Franchi, M., Manganaris, C., Muscle structural assembly and functional consequences. J Exp Biol 219 (2016), 276–284.
58. 58 Mayans, D., Cartwright, M.S., Walker, F.O., Neuromuscular ultrasonography: Quantifying muscle and nerve measurements. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 23 (2012), 133–148.
59. 59 Morse, C.I., Thom, J.M., Birch, K.M., Narici, M.V., Changes in triceps surae muscle architecture with sarcopenia. Acta Physiol Scand 183 (2005), 291–298.
60. 60 Strasser, E.M., Draskovits, T., Praschak, M., et al. Association between ultrasound measurements of muscle thickness, pennation angle, echogenicity and skeletal muscle strength in the elderly. Age 35 (2013), 2377–2388.
61. 61 Narici, M.V., Binzoni, T., Hiltbrand, E., et al. In vivo human gastrocnemius architecture with changing joint angle at rest and during graded isometric contraction. J Physiol 496 (1996), 287–297.
62. 62 Reeves, N.D., Narici, M.V., Maganaris, C.N., Effect of resistance training on skeletal muscle-specific force in elderly humans. J Appl Physiol 96 (2004), 885–892.
63. 63 Ando, R., Nosaka, K., Inami, T., et al. Difference in fascicle behaviors between superficial and deep quadriceps muscles during isometric contractions. Muscle Nerve 53 (2016), 797–802.
64. 64 Song, M.Y., Ruts, E., Kim, J., et al. Sarcopenia and increased adipose tissue infiltration of muscle in elderly African American women. Am J Clin Nutr 79 (2004), 874–880.
65. 65 Delmonico, M.J., Harris, T.B., Visser, M., et al. Longitudinal study of muscle strength, quality, and adipose tissue infiltration. Am J Clin Nutr 90 (2009), 1579–1585.
66. 66 Zoico, E., Corzato, F., Bambace, C., et al. Myosteatosis and myofibrosis: Relationship with aging, inflammation and insulin resistance. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 57 (2013), 411–416.
67. 67 Stephens, N.A., Skipworth, R.J.E., MacDonald, A.J., et al. Intramyocellular lipid droplets increase with progression of cachexia in cancer patients. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2 (2011), 111–117.
68. 68 Zaidman, C.M., Holland, M.R., Anderson, C.C., Pestronk, A., Calibrated quantitative ultrasound imaging of skeletal muscle using backscatter analysis. Muscle Nerve 38 (2008), 893–898.
69. 69 Fukumoto, Y., Ikezoe, T., Yamada, Y., et al. Skeletal muscle quality assessed from echo intensity is associated with muscle strength of middle-aged and elderly persons. Eur J Appl Physiol 112 (2012), 1519–1525.
70. 70 Watanabe, Y., Yamada, Y., Fukumoto, Y., et al. Echo intensity obtained from ultrasonography images reflecting muscle strength in elderly men. Clin Interv Aging 8 (2013), 993–998.
71. 71 Maddocks, M., Jones, M., Snell, T., et al. Ankle dorsiflexor muscle size, composition and force with ageing and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Exp Physiol 99 (2014), 1078–1088.
72. 72 Narici, M.V., Maganaris, C.N., Muscle architecture and adaptations to functional requirements. Bottinelli, R., Reggiani, C., Stienen, G.J.M., (eds.) Skeletal Muscle Plasticity in Health and Disease: From Genes to Muscle, 2006, Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands, 265–288.
73. 73 Nair, K.S., Aging muscle. Am J Clin Nutr 81 (2005), 953–963.
74. 74 Mitchell, W.K., Williams, J., Atherton, P., et al. Sarcopenia, dynapenia, and the impact of advancing age on human skeletal muscle size and strength; A quantitative review. Front Physiol, 3, 2012, 260.
75. 75 Goodpaster, B.H., Park, S.W., Harris, T.B., et al. The loss of skeletal muscle strength, mass, and quality in older adults: The Healthy, Aging and Body Composition Study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 61A (2006), 1059–1064.
76. 76 Schaap, L.A., Koster, A., Visser, M., Adiposity, muscle mass, and muscle strength in relation to functional decline in older persons. Epidemiol Rev 35 (2013), 51–65.
77. 77 Abe, T., Thiebaud, R.S., Loenneke, J.P., et al. Association between forearm muscle thickness and age-related loss of skeletal muscle mass, handgrip and knee extension strength and walking performance in old men and women: A pilot study. Ultrasound Med Biol 40 (2014), 2069–2075.
78. 78 Fukunaga, T., Kubo, K., Kawakami, Y., et al. In vivo behaviour of human muscle tendon during walking. Proc Biol Sci 268 (2001), 229–233.
79. 79 Mian, O.S., Thom, J.M., Ardigò, L.P., et al. Gastrocnemius muscle-tendon behaviour during walking in young and older adults. Acta Physiol 189 (2007), 57–65.
80. 80 Nambele, G.L., Narici, M.V., Maganaris, C.N., Calf muscle-tendon properties and postural balance in old age. J Appl Physiol 100 (2006), 2048–2056.
81. 81 Kumagai, K., Abe, T., Brechue, W.F., et al. Sprint performance is related to muscle fascicle length in male 100-m sprinters. J Appl Physiol 88 (2000), 811–816.
82. 82 Lieber, R.L., Fridén, J., Functional and clinical significance of skeletal muscle architecture. Muscle Nerve 23 (2000), 1647–1666.
83. 83 Abe, T., Counts, B.R., Barnett, B.E., et al. Associations between handgrip strength and ultrasound-measured muscle thickness of the hand and forearm in young men and women. Ultrasound Med Biol 41 (2015), 2125–2130.
84. 84 Ido, A., Nakayama, Y., Ishii, K., et al. Ultrasound-derived abdominal muscle thickness better detects metabolic syndrome risk in obese patients than skeletal muscle index measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. PLoS One, 10, 2015, e0143858.
85. 85 Mueller, N., Murthy, S., Tainter, C.R., et al. Can sarcopenia quantified by ultrasound of the rectus femoris muscle predict adverse outcome of surgical intensive care unit patients as well as frailty? A prospective, observational cohort study. Ann Surg 264 (2016), 1116–1124.
86. 86 Greening, N.J., Harvey-Dunstan, T.C., Chaplin, E.J., et al. Bedside assessment of quadriceps muscle by ultrasound after admission for acute exacerbations of chronic respiratory disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 192 (2015), 810–816.
87. 87 de Boer, M.D., Seynnes, O.R., di Prampero, P.E., et al. Effect of 5 weeks horizontal bed rest on human muscle thickness and architecture of weight bearing and non-weight bearing muscles. Eur J Appl Physiol 104 (2008), 401–407.
88. 88 Seynnes, O.R., Manganaris, C.N., de Boer, M.D., et al. Early structural adaptations to unloading in the human calf muscles. Acta Physiol 193 (2008), 265–274.
89. 89 Campbell, E.L., Seynnes, O.R., Bottinelli, R., et al. Skeletal muscle adaptations to physical inactivity and subsequent retraining in young men. Biogerontology 14 (2013), 247–259.
90. 90 Pahor, M., Guralnik, J.M., Ambrosius, W.T., et al. Effect of structured physical activity on prevention of major mobility disability in older adults: The LIFE Study randomized clinical trial. JAMA 311 (2014), 2387–2396.
91. 91 Morse, C.I., Thom, J.M., Mian, O.S., et al. Gastrocnemius specific force is increased in elderly males following a 12-month physical training programme. Eur J Appl Physiol 100 (2007), 563–570.
92. 92 Reeves, N.D., Manganaris, C.N., Longo, S., Narici, M.V., Differential adaptations to eccentric versus conventional resistance training in older humans. Exp Physiol 94 (2009), 825–833.
93. 93 Narici, M.V., Flueck, M., Koesters, A., et al. Skeletal muscle remodeling in response to alpine skiing training in older individuals. Scand J Med Sci Sports 21 (2011), 23–28.
94. 94 Menon, M.K., Houchen, L., Harrison, S., et al. Ultrasound assessment of lower limb muscle mass in response to resistance training in COPD. Respir Res, 13, 2012, 119.
95. 95 Atkinson, R.A., Srinivas-Shankar, U., Roberts, S.A., et al. Effect of testosterone on skeletal muscle architecture in intermediate-frail and frail elderly men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 65A (2010), 1215–1219.
96. 96 Maddocks, M., Nolan, C.M., Man, W.D.C., et al. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation to improve exercise capacity in patients with severe COPD: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med 4 (2016), 27–36.
97. 97 Hammond, K., Mampilly, J., Laghi, F.A., et al. Validity and reliability of rectus femoris ultrasound measurements: Comparison of curved-array and linear-array transducers. J Rehabil Res Dev 51 (2014), 1155–1164.
98. 98 Franchi, M.V., Quinlan, J.I., Philbrooks, L., et al. Extended field of view ultrasound compared to MRI in the assessment of changes in skeletal muscle cross-sectional area and volume. The Biomedical Basis of Elite Performance 2016 (London, UK). Proc Physiol Soc, 35, 2016, PC35.
99. 99 Han, P., Chen, Y., Ao, L., et al. Automatic thickness estimation for skeletal muscle in ultrasonography: Evaluation of two enhancement methods. Biomed Eng Online, 12, 2013, 6.
100. 100 Morley, J.E., Anker, S.D., von Haehling, S., Prevalence, incidence, and clinical impact of sarcopenia: Facts, numbers, and epidemiology—update 2014. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 5 (2014), 253–259.
101. 101 Marzetti, E., Calvani, R., Cesari, M., et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction and sarcopenia of aging: From signaling pathways to clinical trials. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 45 (2013), 2288–2301.
102. 102 Mitchell, W.K., Phillips, B.E., Williams, J.P., et al. Development of a new Sonovue contrast-enhanced ultrasound approach reveals temporal and age-related features of muscle microvascular responses to feeding. Physiol Rep, 1, 2013, e00119.
103. 103 Greising, S.M., Mantilla, C.B., Gorman, B.A., et al. Diaphragm muscle sarcopenia in aging mice. Exp Gerontol 48 (2013), 881–887.
104. 104 Greising, S.M., Mantilla, C.B., Medina-Martinéz, J.S., et al. Functional impact of diaphragm muscle sarcopenia in both male and female mice. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 309 (2015), L46–L52.
105. 105 Greising, S.M., Ermilov, L.G., Sieck, G.C., Mantilla, C.B., Ageing and neurotrophic signaling effects on diaphragm neuromuscular function. J Physiol 593 (2015), 431–440.
106. 106 Greising, S.M., Medina-Martinéz, J.S., Vasdev, A.K., et al. Analysis of muscle fibre clustering in the diaphragm muscle of sarcopenic mice. Muscle Nerve 52 (2015), 76–82.
107. 107 Mangner, N., Weikert, B., Bowen, T.S., et al. Skeletal muscle alterations in chronic heart failure: Differential effects on quadriceps and diaphragm. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 6 (2015), 381–390.
108. 108 Sanders, K.J., Kneppers, A.E., van de Bool, C., et al. Cachexia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: New insights and therapeutic perspective. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 7 (2016), 5–22.
109. 109 Tolep, K., Higgins, N., Muza, S., et al. Comparison of diaphragm strength between healthy adult elderly and young men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 152 (1995), 677–682.
110. 110 Polkey, M.I., Harris, M.L., Hughes, P.D., et al. The contractile properties of the elderly human diaphragm. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 155 (1997), 1560–1564.
111. 111 Yamada, K., Kinugasa, Y., Sota, T., et al. Inspiratory muscle weakness is associated with exercise intolerance in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: A preliminary study. J Cardiac Fail 22 (2016), 38–47.
112. 112 Elliott, J.E., Greising, S.M., Mantilla, C.B., Sieck, G.C., Functional impact of sarcopenia in respiratory muscles. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 226 (2016), 137–146.
113. 113 Berger, D., Bloechlinger, S., von Haehling, S., et al. Dysfunction of respiratory muscles in critically ill patients on the intensive care unit. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 7 (2016), 403–412.
114. 114 Umbrello, M., Formenti, P., Longhi, D., et al. Diaphragm ultrasound as indicator of respiratory effort in critically ill patients undergoing assisted mechanical ventilation: A pilot clinical study. Crit Care, 19, 2015, 161.
115. 115 Schepens, T., Verbrugghe, W., Dams, K., et al. The course of diaphragm atrophy in ventilated patients assessed with ultrasound: A longitudinal cohort study. Crit Care, 19, 2015, 422.
116. 116 Goligher, E.C., Fan, E., Herridge, M.S., et al. Evolution of diaphragm thickness during mechanical ventilation: Impact of inspiratory effort. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 192 (2015), 1080–1088.
117. 117 Fantini, R., Mandrioli, J., Zona, S., et al. Ultrasound assessment of diaphragmatic function in patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Respirology 21 (2016), 932–938.
118. 118 Baria, M.R., Shahgholi, L., Sorenson, E.J., et al. B-mode ultrasound assessment of diaphragm structure and function in patients with COPD. Chest 146 (2014), 680–685.
119. 119 Souza, H., Rocha, T., Pessoa, M., et al. Effects of inspiratory muscle training in elderly women on respiratory muscle strength, diaphragm thickness and mobility. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 69 (2014), 1545–1553.
120. 120 Sarwal, A., Parry, S.M., Berry, M.J., et al. Interobserver reliability of quantitative muscle sonographic analysis in the critically ill population. J Ultrasound Med 34 (2015), 1191–1200.
121. 121 Carrillo-Esper, R., Pérez-Calatayud, A.A., Arch-Tirado, E., et al. Standardization of sonographic diaphragm thickness evaluations on healthy volunteers. Respir Care 61 (2016), 920–924.
122. 122 Boon, A.J., Harper, C.J., Ghahfarokhi, L.S., et al. Two-dimensional ultrasound imaging of the diaphragm: Quantitative values in normal subjects. Muscle Nerve 47 (2013), 884–889.