Current concepts of ARDS: A narrative review

International Journal of Molecular Sciences

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2017, Pages

  Umbrello, Michele ^a   Formenti, Paolo ^a   Bolgiaghi, Luca ^b   Chiumello, Davide ^a,b  

^a SAN PAOLO HOSPITAL   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

Author keywords

Acute respiratory distress syndrome; Critically ill patients; Lung protective ventilation; Positive end expiratory pressure

Indexed keywords

CORTICOSTEROID; VASODILATOR AGENT;

ADULT RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; EXTRACORPOREAL OXYGENATION; GAS EXCHANGE; HUMAN; INTRACARDIAC ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; LUNG EDEMA; LUNG HEMODYNAMICS; LUNG VENTILATION; NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING; NONHUMAN; NONINVASIVE VENTILATION; PATHOGENESIS; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PRONE POSITION; REVIEW; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; TIDAL VOLUME; TRACHEAL ASPIRATION PROCEDURE; VENTILATOR INDUCED LUNG INJURY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; LUNG; LUNG FUNCTION TEST; MICROBIOLOGY; PATHOLOGY; PROCEDURES; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME, ADULT;

HUMANS; LUNG; RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL; RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME, ADULT; RESPIRATORY FUNCTION TESTS;

EID: 85008199862     PISSN: 16616596     EISSN: 14220067     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijms18010064     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Ashbaugh, D.G., Bigelow, D.B., Petty, T.L., Levine, B.E. Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet 1967, 2, 319-323. [CrossRef]
2. Bernard, G.R., Artigas, A., Brigham, K.L., Carlet, J., Falke, K., Hudson, L., Lamy, M., Legall, J.R., Morris, A., Spragg, R. The american-european consensus conference on ards. Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1994, 149, 818-824. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Ranieri, V.M., Rubenfeld, G.D., Thompson, B.T., Ferguson, N.D., Caldwell, E., Fan, E., Camporota, L., Slutsky, A.S. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: The berlin definition. JAMA 2012, 307, 2526-2533. [PubMed]
4. Montgomery, A.B. Early description of ards. Chest 1991, 99, 261-262. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Esteban, A., Ferguson, N.D., Meade, M.O., Frutos-Vivar, F., Apezteguia, C., Brochard, L., Raymondos, K., Nin, N., Hurtado, J., Tomicic, V., et al. Evolution of mechanical ventilation in response to clinical research. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2008, 177, 170-177. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Rubenfeld, G.D., Caldwell, E., Peabody, E., Weaver, J., Martin, D.P., Neff, M., Stern, E.J., Hudson, L.D. Incidence and outcomes of acute lung injury. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 353, 1685-1693. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Li, G., Malinchoc, M., Cartin-Ceba, R., Venkata, C.V., Kor, D.J., Peters, S.G., Hubmayr, R.D., Gajic, O. Eight-year trend of acute respiratory distress syndrome: A population-based study in olmsted county, minnesota. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2011, 183, 59-66. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. Hejblum, G., Chalumeau-Lemoine, L., Ioos, V., Boelle, P.Y., Salomon, L., Simon, T., Vibert, J.F., Guidet, B. Comparison of routine and on-demand prescription of chest radiographs in mechanically ventilated adults: A multicentre, cluster-randomised, two-period crossover study. Lancet 2009, 374, 1687-1693. [CrossRef]
9. Pilon, C.S., Leathley, M., London, R., McLean, S., Phang, P.T., Priestley, R., Rosenberg, F.M., Singer, J., Anis, A.H., Dodek, P.M. Practice guideline for arterial blood gas measurement in the intensive care unit decreases numbers and increases appropriateness of tests. Crit. Care Med. 1997, 25, 1308-1313. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. Hebert, P.C., Wells, G., Blajchman, M.A., Marshall, J., Martin, C., Pagliarello, G., Tweeddale, M., Schweitzer, I., Yetisir, E. A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion requirements in critical care. Transfusion requirements in critical care investigators, canadian critical care trials group. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999, 340, 409-417. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Rosenthal, V.D., Rodrigues, C., Alvarez-Moreno, C., Madani, N., Mitrev, Z., Ye, G., Salomao, R., Ulger, F., Guanche-Garcell, H., Kanj, S.S., et al. Effectiveness of a multidimensional approach for prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia in adult intensive care units from 14 developing countries of four continents: Findings of the international nosocomial infection control consortium. Crit. Care Med. 2012, 40, 3121-3128. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
12. Neto, A.S., Pereira, V.G., Esposito, D.C., Damasceno, M.C., Schultz, M.J. Neuromuscular blocking agents in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: A summary of the current evidence from three randomized controlled trials. Ann. Intensive Care 2012, 2, 33-41. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. Calfee, C.S., Ware, L.B., Glidden, D.V., Eisner, M.D., Parsons, P.E., Thompson, B.T., Matthay, M.A. Use of risk reclassification with multiple biomarkers improves mortality prediction in acute lung injury. Crit. Care Med. 2011, 39, 711-717. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Ware, L.B., Koyama, T., Billheimer, D.D., Wu, W., Bernard, G.R., Thompson, B.T., Brower, R.G., Standiford, T.J., Martin, T.R., Matthay, M.A. Prognostic and pathogenetic value of combining clinical and biochemical indices in patients with acute lung injury. Chest 2010, 137, 288-296. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
15. Caironi, P., Carlesso, E., Cressoni, M., Chiumello, D., Moerer, O., Chiurazzi, C., Brioni, M., Bottino, N., Lazzerini, M., Bugedo, G., et al. Lung recruitability is better estimated according to the berlin definition of acute respiratory distress syndrome at standard 5 cm H2O rather than higher positive end-expiratory pressure: A retrospective cohort study. Crit. Care Med. 2015, 43, 781-790. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Ferguson, N.D., Fan, E., Camporota, L., Antonelli, M., Anzueto, A., Beale, R., Brochard, L., Brower, R., Esteban, A., Gattinoni, L., et al. The berlin definition of ards: An expanded rationale, justification, and supplementary material. Intensive Care Med. 2012, 38, 1573-1582. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Piantadosi, C.A., Schwartz, D.A. The acute respiratory distress syndrome. Ann. Intern. Med. 2004, 141, 460-470. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. Chastre, J., Trouillet, J.L., Vuagnat, A., Joly-Guillou, M.L., Clavier, H., Dombret, M.C., Gibert, C. Nosocomial pneumonia in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1998, 157, 1165-1172. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. De Roux, A., Marcos, M.A., Garcia, E., Mensa, J., Ewig, S., Lode, H., Torres, A. Viral community-acquired pneumonia in nonimmunocompromised adults. Chest 2004, 125, 1343-1351. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. Jennings, L.C., Anderson, T.P., Beynon, K.A., Chua, A., Laing, R.T., Werno, A.M., Young, S.A., Chambers, S.T., Murdoch, D.R. Incidence and characteristics of viral community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Thorax 2008, 63, 42-48. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. Luyt, C.E., Combes, A., Trouillet, J.L., Nieszkowska, A., Chastre, J. Virus-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome: Epidemiology, management and outcome. Presse Med. 2011, 40, e561-e568. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Choi, S.H., Hong, S.B., Ko, G.B., Lee, Y., Park, H.J., Park, S.Y., Moon, S.M., Cho, O.H., Park, K.H., Chong, Y.P., et al. Viral infection in patients with severe pneumonia requiring intensive care unit admission. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2012, 186, 325-332. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. Bautista, E., Chotpitayasunondh, T., Gao, Z., Harper, S.A., Shaw, M., Uyeki, T.M., Zaki, S.R., Hayden, F.G., Hui, D.S., Kettner, J.D., et al. Clinical aspects of pandemic 2009 influenza a (H1N1) virus infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 2010, 362, 1708-1719. [PubMed]
24. Luyt, C.E., Combes, A., Deback, C., Aubriot-Lorton, M.H., Nieszkowska, A., Trouillet, J.L., Capron, F., Agut, H., Gibert, C., Chastre, J. Herpes simplex virus lung infection in patients undergoing prolonged mechanical ventilation. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2007, 175, 935-942. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Papazian, L., Doddoli, C., Chetaille, B., Gernez, Y., Thirion, X., Roch, A., Donati, Y., Bonnety, M., Zandotti, C., Thomas, P. A contributive result of open-lung biopsy improves survival in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients. Crit. Care Med. 2007, 35, 755-762. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Azoulay, E., Lemiale, V., Mokart, D., Pene, F., Kouatchet, A., Perez, P., Vincent, F., Mayaux, J., Benoit, D., Bruneel, F., et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients with malignancies. Intensive Care Med. 2014, 40, 1106-1114. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Gadsby, N.J., Helgason, K.O., Dickson, E.M., Mills, J.M., Lindsay, D.S., Edwards, G.F., Hanson, M.F., Templeton, K.E. Molecular diagnosis of legionella infections—Clinical utility of front-line screening as part of a pneumonia diagnostic algorithm. J. Infect. 2016, 72, 161-170. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Gibelin, A., Parrot, A., Maitre, B., Brun-Buisson, C., Mekontso-Dessap, A., Fartoukh, M., de Prost, N. Acute respiratory distress syndrome mimickers lacking common risk factors of the berlin definition. Intensive Care Med. 2016, 42, 164-172. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. Papazian, L., Calfee, C.S., Chiumello, D., Luyt, C.E., Meyer, N.J., Sekiguchi, H., Matthay, M.A., Meduri, G.U. Diagnostic workup for ards patients. Intensive Care Med. 2016, 42, 674-685. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. Palakshappa, J.A., Meyer, N.J. Which patients with ards benefit from lung biopsy? Chest 2015, 148, 1073-1082. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. Gattinoni, L., Caironi, P., Pelosi, P., Goodman, L.R. What has computed tomography taught us about the acute respiratory distress syndrome? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2001, 164, 1701-1711. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
32. Pelosi, P., D’Andrea, L., Vitale, G., Pesenti, A., Gattinoni, L. Vertical gradient of regional lung inflation in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1994, 149, 8-13. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Mead, J., Takishima, T., Leith, D. Stress distribution in lungs: A model of pulmonary elasticity. J. Appl. Physiol. 1970, 28, 596-608. [PubMed]
34. Goodman, L.R., Fumagalli, R., Tagliabue, P., Tagliabue, M., Ferrario, M., Gattinoni, L., Pesenti, A. Adult respiratory distress syndrome due to pulmonary and extrapulmonary causes: Ct, clinical, and functional correlations. Radiology 1999, 213, 545-552. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
35. Lichtenstein, D.A. Ultrasound in the management of thoracic disease. Crit. Care Med. 2007, 35, 250-261. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
36. Volpicelli, G., Elbarbary, M., Blaivas, M., Lichtenstein, D.A., Mathis, G., Kirkpatrick, A.W., Melniker, L., Gargani, L., Noble, V.E., Via, G., et al. International evidence-based recommendations for point-of-care lung ultrasound. Intensive Care Med. 2012, 38, 577-591. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
37. Lichtenstein, D.A., Meziere, G.A. Relevance of lung ultrasound in the diagnosis of acute respiratory failure: The blue protocol. Chest 2008, 134, 117-125. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. Gargani, L., Lionetti, V., di Cristofano, C., Bevilacqua, G., Recchia, F.A., Picano, E. Early detection of acute lung injury uncoupled to hypoxemia in pigs using ultrasound lung comets. Crit. Care Med. 2007, 35, 2769-2774. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
39. Copetti, R., Soldati, G., Copetti, P. Chest sonography: A useful tool to differentiate acute cardiogenic pulmonary edema from acute respiratory distress syndrome. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound 2008, 6, 16-26. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
40. Bouhemad, B., Liu, Z.H., Arbelot, C., Zhang, M., Ferarri, F., Le-Guen, M., Girard, M., Lu, Q., Rouby, J.J. Ultrasound assessment of antibiotic-induced pulmonary reaeration in ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit. Care Med. 2010, 38, 84-92. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
41. Peris, A., Zagli, G., Barbani, F., Tutino, L., Biondi, S., di Valvasone, S., Batacchi, S., Bonizzoli, M., Spina, R., Miniati, M., et al. The value of lung ultrasound monitoring in H1N1 acute respiratory distress syndrome. Anaesthesia 2010, 65, 294-297. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
42. Martin, T.R. Lung cytokines and ards: Rogers. Mitchell lecture. Chest 1999, 116, 2-8. [CrossRef]
43. Moine, P., McIntyre, R., Schwartz, M.D., Kaneko, D., Shenkar, R., Le Tulzo, Y., Moore, E.E., Abraham, E. NF-κB regulatory mechanisms in alveolar macrophages from patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Shock 2000, 13, 85-91. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Sadikot, R.T., Blackwell, T.S. Bioluminescence imaging. Proc. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2005, 2, 537-540. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
45. Aliaga, M., Forel, J.M., de Bourmont, S., Jung, B., Thomas, G., Mahul, M., Bisbal, M., Nougaret, S., Hraiech, S., Roch, A., et al. Diagnostic yield and safety of ct scans in ICU. Intensive Care Med. 2015, 41, 436-443. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46. Rocco, P.R., Dos Santos, C., Pelosi, P. Lung parenchyma remodeling in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Minerva Anestesiol. 2009, 75, 730-740. [PubMed]
47. Meduri, G.U., Annane, D., Chrousos, G.P., Marik, P.E., Sinclair, S.E. Activation and regulation of systemic inflammation in ards: Rationale for prolonged glucocorticoid therapy. Chest 2009, 136, 1631-1643. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Mascheroni, D., Kolobow, T., Fumagalli, R., Moretti, M.P., Chen, V., Buckhold, D. Acute respiratory failure following pharmacologically induced hyperventilation: An experimental animal study. Intensive Care Med. 1988, 15, 8-14. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
49. Dreyfuss, D., Saumon, G. Ventilator-induced lung injury: Lessons from experimental studies. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1998, 157, 294-323. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Amato, M.B., Meade, M.O., Slutsky, A.S., Brochard, L., Costa, E.L., Schoenfeld, D.A., Stewart, T.E., Briel, M., Talmor, D., Mercat, A., et al. Driving pressure and survival in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 2015, 372, 747-755. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
51. Hotchkiss, J.R., Jr., Blanch, L., Murias, G., Adams, A.B., Olson, D.A., Wangensteen, O.D., Leo, P.H., Marini, J.J. Effects of decreased respiratory frequency on ventilator-induced lung injury. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2000, 161, 463-468. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
52. Cressoni, M., Gotti, M., Chiurazzi, C., Massari, D., Algieri, I., Amini, M., Cammaroto, A., Brioni, M., Montaruli, C., Nikolla, K., et al. Mechanical power and development of ventilator-induced lung injury. Anesthesiology 2016, 124, 1100-1108. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
53. Protti, A., Andreis, D.T., Milesi, M., Iapichino, G.E., Monti, M., Comini, B., Pugni, P., Melis, V., Santini, A., Dondossola, D., et al. Lung anatomy, energy load, and ventilator-induced lung injury. Intensive Care Med. Exp. 2015, 3, 34. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Gattinoni, L., Tonetti, T., Cressoni, M., Cadringher, P., Herrmann, P., Moerer, O., Protti, A., Gotti, M., Chiurazzi, C., Carlesso, E., et al. Ventilator-related causes of lung injury: The mechanical power. Intensive Care Med. 2016, 42, 1567-1575. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
55. Ranieri, V.M., Suter, P.M., Tortorella, C., de Tullio, R., Dayer, J.M., Brienza, A., Bruno, F., Slutsky, A.S. Effect of mechanical ventilation on inflammatory mediators in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1999, 282, 54-61. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
56. Gattinoni, L., Pesenti, A. The concept of “baby lung”. Intensive Care Med. 2005, 31, 776-784. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57. Agarwal, R., Aggarwal, A.N., Gupta, D. Role of noninvasive ventilation in acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome: A proportion meta-analysis. Respir. Care 2010, 55, 1653-1660. [PubMed]
58. Lee, J.H., Rehder, K.J., Williford, L., Cheifetz, I.M., Turner, D.A. Use of high flow nasal cannula in critically ill infants, children, and adults: A critical review of the literature. Intensive Care Med. 2013, 39, 247-257. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
59. Messika, J., Ben Ahmed, K., Gaudry, S., Miguel-Montanes, R., Rafat, C., Sztrymf, B., Dreyfuss, D., Ricard, J.D. Use of high-flow nasal cannula oxygen therapy in subjects with ards: A 1-year observational study. Respir. Care 2015, 60, 162-169. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
60. Antonelli, M., Conti, G., Moro, M.L., Esquinas, A., Gonzalez-Diaz, G., Confalonieri, M., Pelaia, P., Principi, T., Gregoretti, C., Beltrame, F., et al. Predictors of failure of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: A multi-center study. Intensive Care Med. 2001, 27, 1718-1728. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
61. Frat, J.P., Thille, A.W., Mercat, A., Girault, C., Ragot, S., Perbet, S., Prat, G., Boulain, T., Morawiec, E., Cottereau, A., et al. High-flow oxygen through nasal cannula in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 2015, 372, 2185-2196. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
62. Gattinoni, L. Ultra-protective ventilation and hypoxemia. Crit. Care 2016, 20, 130. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
63. Pelosi, P., Goldner, M., McKibben, A., Adams, A., Eccher, G., Caironi, P., Losappio, S., Gattinoni, L., Marini, J.J. Recruitment and derecruitment during acute respiratory failure: An experimental study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2001, 164, 122-130. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. Webb, H.H., Tierney, D.F. Experimental pulmonary edema due to intermittent positive pressure ventilation with high inflation pressures. Protection by positive end-expiratory pressure. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1974, 110, 556-565. [PubMed]
65. Dreyfuss, D., Soler, P., Basset, G., Saumon, G. High inflation pressure pulmonary edema. Respective effects of high airway pressure, high tidal volume, and positive end-expiratory pressure. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1988, 137, 1159-1164. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66. Bowton, D.L., Kong, D.L. High tidal volume ventilation produces increased lung water in oleic acid-injured rabbit lungs. Crit. Care Med. 1989, 17, 908-911. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Corbridge, T.C., Wood, L.D., Crawford, G.P., Chudoba, M.J., Yanos, J., Sznajder, J.I. Adverse effects of large tidal volume and low peep in canine acid aspiration. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 1990, 142, 311-315. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
68. Slutsky, A.S., Tremblay, L.N. Multiple system organ failure. Is mechanical ventilation a contributing factor? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1998, 157, 1721-1725. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
69. Gattinoni, L., Pelosi, P., Crotti, S., Valenza, F. Effects of positive end-expiratory pressure on regional distribution of tidal volume and recruitment in adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1995, 151, 1807-1814. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
70. Caironi, P., Cressoni, M., Chiumello, D., Ranieri, M., Quintel, M., Russo, S.G., Cornejo, R., Bugedo, G., Carlesso, E., Russo, R., et al. Lung opening and closing during ventilation of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2010, 181, 578-586. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
71. Brower, R.G., Lanken, P.N., MacIntyre, N., Matthay, M.A., Morris, A., Ancukiewicz, M., Schoenfeld, D., Thompson, B.T. Higher versus lower positive end-expiratory pressures in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004, 351, 327-336. [PubMed]
72. Meade, M.O., Cook, D.J., Guyatt, G.H., Slutsky, A.S., Arabi, Y.M., Cooper, D.J., Davies, A.R., Hand, L.E., Zhou, Q., Thabane, L., et al. Ventilation strategy using low tidal volumes, recruitment maneuvers, and high positive end-expiratory pressure for acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008, 299, 637-645. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
73. Cressoni, M., Chiumello, D., Carlesso, E., Chiurazzi, C., Amini, M., Brioni, M., Cadringher, P., Quintel, M., Gattinoni, L. Compressive forces and computed tomography-derived positive end-expiratory pressure in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology 2014, 121, 572-581. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
74. Chiumello, D., Algieri, I., Grasso, S., Terragni, P., Pelosi, P. Recruitment maneuvers in acute respiratory distress syndrome and during general anesthesia. Minerva Anestesiol. 2016, 82, 210-220. [PubMed]
75. Suzumura, E.A., Figueiro, M., Normilio-Silva, K., Laranjeira, L., Oliveira, C., Buehler, A.M., Bugano, D., Passos-Amato, M.B., Ribeiro-Carvalho, C.R., Berwanger, O., et al. Effects of alveolar recruitment maneuvers on clinical outcomes in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2014, 40, 1227-1240. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
76. Chiumello, D., Marino, A., Brioni, M., Cigada, I., Menga, F., Colombo, A., Crimella, F., Algieri, I., Cressoni, M., Carlesso, E., et al. Lung recruitment assessed by respiratory mechanics and computed tomography in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. What is the relationship? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2016, 193, 1254-1263. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
77. Gattinoni, L., Caironi, P., Cressoni, M., Chiumello, D., Ranieri, V.M., Quintel, M., Russo, S., Patroniti, N., Cornejo, R., Bugedo, G. Lung recruitment in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006, 354, 1775-1786. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
78. Chiumello, D., Froio, S., Bouhemad, B., Camporota, L., Coppola, S. Clinical review: Lung imaging in acute respiratory distress syndrome patients—An update. Crit. Care 2013, 17, 243. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
79. Bouhemad, B., Brisson, H., Le-Guen, M., Arbelot, C., Lu, Q., Rouby, J.J. Bedside ultrasound assessment of positive end-expiratory pressure-induced lung recruitment. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2011, 183, 341-347. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
80. Cressoni, M., Cadringher, P., Chiurazzi, C., Amini, M., Gallazzi, E., Marino, A., Brioni, M., Carlesso, E., Chiumello, D., Quintel, M., et al. Lung inhomogeneity in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2014, 189, 149-158. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
81. Broccard, A.F., Hotchkiss, J.R., Kuwayama, N., Olson, D.A., Jamal, S., Wangensteen, D.O., Marini, J.J. Consequences of vascular flow on lung injury induced by mechanical ventilation. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1998, 157, 1935-1942. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
82. Protti, A., Cressoni, M., Santini, A., Langer, T., Mietto, C., Febres, D., Chierichetti, M., Coppola, S., Conte, G., Gatti, S., et al. Lung stress and strain during mechanical ventilation: Any safe threshold? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2011, 183, 1354-1362. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
83. Chiumello, D., Cressoni, M., Colombo, A., Babini, G., Brioni, M., Crimella, F., Lundin, S., Stenqvist, O., Gattinoni, L. The assessment of transpulmonary pressure in mechanically ventilated ARDS patients. Intensive Care Med. 2014, 40, 1670-1678. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
84. Chiumello, D., Langer, T., Vecchi, V., Luoni, S., Colombo, A., Brioni, M., Froio, S., Cigada, I., Coppola, S., Protti, A., et al. Low-dose chest computed tomography for quantitative and visual anatomical analysis in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2014, 40, 691-699. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
85. Mercat, A., Richard, J.C., Vielle, B., Jaber, S., Osman, D., Diehl, J.L., Lefrant, J.Y., Prat, G., Richecoeur, J., Nieszkowska, A., et al. Positive end-expiratory pressure setting in adults with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008, 299, 646-655. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
86. Grasso, S., Terragni, P., Mascia, L., Fanelli, V., Quintel, M., Herrmann, P., Hedenstierna, G., Slutsky, A.S., Ranieri, V.M. Airway pressure-time curve profile (stress index) detects tidal recruitment/hyperinflation in experimental acute lung injury. Crit. Care Med. 2004, 32, 1018-1027. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
87. Talmor, D., Sarge, T., Malhotra, A., O’Donnell, C.R., Ritz, R., Lisbon, A., Novack, V., Loring, S.H. Mechanical ventilation guided by esophageal pressure in acute lung injury. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008, 359, 2095-2104. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
88. Gattinoni, L., Carlesso, E., Caironi, P. Stress and strain within the lung. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 2012, 18, 42-47. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
89. Wiedemann, H.P., Arroliga, A.C., Fisher, C.J., Komara, J.J., Perez, P., Parsons, P.E., Wolkin, R., Welsh, C., Fulkerson, W.J., MacIntyre, N., et al. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The acute respiratory distress syndrome network. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000, 342, 1301-1308.
90. Petrucci, N., de Feo, C. Lung protective ventilation strategy for the acute respiratory distress syndrome. . 2013. [CrossRef]
91. Jaswal, D.S., Leung, J.M., Sun, J., Cui, X., Li, Y., Kern, S., Welsh, J., Natanson, C., Eichacker, P.Q. Tidal volume and plateau pressure use for acute lung injury from 2000 to present: A systematic literature review. Crit. Care Med. 2014, 42, 2278-2289. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
92. Chiumello, D., Carlesso, E., Cadringher, P., Caironi, P., Valenza, F., Polli, F., Tallarini, F., Cozzi, P., Cressoni, M., Colombo, A., et al. Lung stress and strain during mechanical ventilation for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2008, 178, 346-355. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
93. Gattinoni, L., Carlesso, E., Cadringher, P., Valenza, F., Vagginelli, F., Chiumello, D. Physical and biological triggers of ventilator-induced lung injury and its prevention. Eur. Respir. J. 2003, 47, 15-25. [CrossRef]
94. Gattinoni, L., Pelosi, P., Suter, P.M., Pedoto, A., Vercesi, P., Lissoni, A. Acute respiratory distress syndrome caused by pulmonary and extrapulmonary disease. Different syndromes? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 1998, 158, 3-11. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
95. Chiumello, D., Carlesso, E., Brioni, M., Cressoni, M. Airway driving pressure and lung stress in ards patients. Crit. Care 2016, 20, 276-286. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
96. Chacko, B., Peter, J.V., Tharyan, P., John, G., Jeyaseelan, L. Pressure-controlled versus volume-controlled ventilation for acute respiratory failure due to acute lung injury (ALI) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2015. [CrossRef]
97. Rittayamai, N., Katsios, C.M., Beloncle, F., Friedrich, J.O., Mancebo, J., Brochard, L. Pressure-controlled vs. volume-controlled ventilation in acute respiratory failure: A physiology-based narrative and systematic review. Chest 2015, 148, 340-355. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
98. Panwar, R., Hardie, M., Bellomo, R., Barrot, L., Eastwood, G.M., Young, P.J., Capellier, G., Harrigan, P.W., Bailey, M. Conservative versus liberal oxygenation targets for mechanically ventilated patients. A pilot multicenter randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2016, 193, 43-51. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
99. Hraiech, S., Yoshida, T., Papazian, L. Balancing neuromuscular blockade versus preserved muscle activity. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care 2015, 21, 26-33. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
100. Hickling, K.G., Walsh, J., Henderson, S., Jackson, R. Low mortality rate in adult respiratory distress syndrome using low-volume, pressure-limited ventilation with permissive hypercapnia: A prospective study. Crit. Care Med. 1994, 22, 1568-1578. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
101. Caironi, P. Driving pressure and intraoperative protective ventilation. Lancet Respir. Med. 2016, 4, 243-245. [CrossRef]
102. Langer, M., Mascheroni, D., Marcolin, R., Gattinoni, L. The prone position in ards patients. A clinical study. Chest 1988, 94, 103-107. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
103. Piehl, M.A., Brown, R.S. Use of extreme position changes in acute respiratory failure. Crit. Care Med. 1976, 4, 13-14. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
104. Gattinoni, L., Taccone, P., Carlesso, E., Marini, J.J. Prone position in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Rationale, indications, and limits. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2013, 188, 1286-1293. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
105. Guerin, C., Mancebo, J. Prone positioning and neuromuscular blocking agents are part of standard care in severe ards patients: Yes. Intensive Care Med. 2015, 41, 2195-2197. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
106. Peek, G.J., Mugford, M., Tiruvoipati, R., Wilson, A., Allen, E., Thalanany, M.M., Hibbert, C.L., Truesdale, A., Clemens, F., Cooper, N., et al. Efficacy and economic assessment of conventional ventilatory support versus extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe adult respiratory failure (CESAR): A multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009, 374, 1351-1363. [CrossRef]
107. Ventetuolo, C.E., Muratore, C.S. Extracorporeal life support in critically ill adults. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2014, 190, 497-508. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
108. Siobal, M.S. Pulmonary vasodilators. Respir. Care 2007, 52, 885-899. [PubMed]
109. Adhikari, N.K., Dellinger, R.P., Lundin, S., Payen, D., Vallet, B., Gerlach, H., Park, K.J., Mehta, S., Slutsky, A.S., Friedrich, J.O. Inhaled nitric oxide does not reduce mortality in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome regardless of severity: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit. Care Med. 2014, 42, 404-412. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
110. Meduri, G.U., Headley, A.S., Golden, E., Carson, S.J., Umberger, R.A., Kelso, T., Tolley, E.A. Effect of prolonged methylprednisolone therapy in unresolving acute respiratory distress syndrome: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998, 280, 159-165. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
111. Steinberg, K.P., Hudson, L.D., Goodman, R.B., Hough, C.L., Lanken, P.N., Hyzy, R., Thompson, B.T., Ancukiewicz, M. Efficacy and safety of corticosteroids for persistent acute respiratory distress syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006, 354, 1671-1684. [PubMed]
112. Bernard, G.R., Luce, J.M., Sprung, C.L., Rinaldo, J.E., Tate, R.M., Sibbald, W.J., Kariman, K., Higgins, S., Bradley, R., Metz, C.A., et al. High-dose corticosteroids in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 1987, 317, 1565-1570. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
113. Ha, M., Kim, V.N. Regulation of microrna biogenesis. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2014, 15, 509-524. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
114. Foster, P.S., Plank, M., Collison, A., Tay, H.L., Kaiko, G.E., Li, J., Johnston, S.L., Hansbro, P.M., Kumar, R.K., Yang, M., et al. The emerging role of micrornas in regulating immune and inflammatory responses in the lung. Immunol. Rev. 2013, 253, 198-215. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
115. Narute, P., Seam, N., Tropea, M., Logun, C., Cai, R., Sun, J., Shelhamer, J.H., Meduri, G.U., Suffredini, A.F. Temporal changes in microrna expression in blood leukocytes from patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Shock 2016. [CrossRef] [PubMed]