The embodied mind: A review on functional genomic and neurological correlates of mind-body therapies

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Volumn 73, Issue , 2017, Pages 165-181

  Muehsam, David ^a,f   Lutgendorf, Susan ^b   Mills, Paul J ^c   Rickhi, Badri ^d   Chevalier, Gaétan ^e   Bat, Namuun ^f   Chopra, Deepak ^c,g   Gurfein, Blake ^h  

^a National Institute of Biosystems and Biostructures   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY   (Canada)

^e Earthing Institute   (United States)

^f Consciousness and Healing Initiative ^*  (United States)

^g The Chopra Foundation   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Diffusion tensor imaging; Functional genomics; Gene expression; Glucocorticoid; Gray matter concentration; Inflammation; Mbsr; Meditation; Mental practice; Mind body therapy; Mindfulness; Morphometric neuroimaging; Neuroimaging; Psychosocial genomics; Structural neuroimaging; Voxel based morphometry; Yoga

Indexed keywords

IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR;

ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE; BRAIN FUNCTION; BREAST CANCER; CELL AGING; COGNITION; COGNITIVE BASED COMPASSION TRAINING; COGNITIVE BEHAVIORAL STRESS MANAGEMENT; DEFAULT MODE NETWORK; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY; FUNCTIONAL GENOMICS; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOMODULATION; INFLAMMATION; INNATE IMMUNITY; LEUKOCYTE; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MEDITATION; MENTAL HEALTH; MENTAL STRESS; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROMODULATION; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SOCIAL STRESS; ATTENTION; EMOTION; GENOMICS;

ATTENTION; EMOTIONS; GENOMICS; HUMANS; MEDITATION; NEUROIMAGING;

EID: 85007372343     PISSN: 01497634     EISSN: 18737528     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.027     Document Type: Review

References (138)

1. Amihai, I., Kozhevnikov, M., Arousal vs. relaxation: a comparison of the neurophysiological and cognitive correlates of Vajrayana and Theravada meditative practices. PLoS One, 9(7), 2014, e102990.
2. Andrews-Hanna, J.R., The brain's default network and its adaptive role in internal mentation. Neuroscientist 18:3 (2012), 251–270.
3. Antoni, M.H., Lutgendorf, S.K., Blomberg, B., Carver, C.S., Lechner, S., Diaz, A., Stagl, J., Arevalo, J.M., Cole, S.W., Cognitive-behavioral stress management reverses anxiety-related leukocyte transcriptional dynamics. Biol. Psychiatry 71:4 (2012), 366–372.
4. Astin, J.A., Shapiro, S.L., Eisenberg, D.M., Forys, K.L., Mind-body medicine: state of the science, implications for practice. J. Am. Board Fam. Pract. 16:2 (2003), 131–147.
5. Bao, A.M., Meynen, G., Swaab, D.F., The stress system in depression and neurodegeneration: focus on the human hypothalamus. Brain. Res. Rev. 57:2 (2008), 531–553.
6. Barrows, K.A., Jacobs, B.P., Mind-body medicine. An introduction and review of the literature. Med. Clin. North Am. 86:1 (2002), 11–31.
7. Benson, H., Greenwood, M.M., Klemchuk, H., The relaxation response: psychophysiologic aspects and clinical applications. Int. J. Psychiatry Med. 6:1–2 (1975), 87–98.
8. Bierhaus, A., Wolf, J., Andrassy, M., Rohleder, N., Humpert, P.M., Petrov, D., Ferstl, R., von Eynatten, M., Wendt, T., Rudofsky, G., Joswig, M., Morcos, M., Schwaninger, M., McEwen, B., Kirschbaum, C., Nawroth, P.P., A mechanism converting psychosocial stress into mononuclear cell activation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 100:4 (2003), 1920–1925.
9. Black, D.S., Cole, S.W., Irwin, M.R., Breen, E., St Cyr, N.M., Nazarian, N., Khalsa, D.S., Lavretsky, H., Yogic meditation reverses NF-kappaB and IRF-related transcriptome dynamics in leukocytes of family dementia caregivers in a randomized controlled trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology 38:3 (2013), 348–355.
10. Borovikova, L.V., Ivanova, S., Zhang, M., Yang, H., Botchkina, G.I., Watkins, L.R., Wang, H., Abumrad, N., Eaton, J.W., Tracey, K.J., Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin. Nature 405:6785 (2000), 458–462.
11. Bower, J.E., Greendale, G., Crosswell, A.D., Garet, D., Sternlieb, B., Ganz, P.A., Irwin, M.R., Olmstead, R., Arevalo, J., Cole, S.W., Yoga reduces inflammatory signaling in fatigued breast cancer survivors: a randomized controlled trial. Psychoneuroendocrinology 43 (2014), 20–29.
12. Brewer, J.A., Worhunsky, P.D., Gray, J.R., Tang, Y.Y., Weber, J., Kober, H., Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 108:50 (2011), 20254–20259.
13. Cabeza, R., Nyberg, L., Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 12:1 (2000), 1–47.
14. Cacioppo, J.T., Cacioppo, S., Social relationships and health: the toxic effects of perceived social isolation. Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass 8:2 (2014), 58–72.
15. Cahn, B.R., Polich, J., Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies. Psychol. Bull. 132:2 (2006), 180–211.
16. Cahn, B.R., Delorme, A., Polich, J., Occipital gamma activation during Vipassana meditation. Cogn. Process. 11:1 (2010), 39–56.
17. Cahn, B.R., Delorme, A., Polich, J., Event-related delta, theta, alpha and gamma correlates to auditory oddball processing during Vipassana meditation. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 8:1 (2013), 100–111.
18. Carlson, L.E., Beattie, T.L., Giese-Davis, J., Faris, P., Tamagawa, R., Fick, L.J., Degelman, E.S., Speca, M., Mindfulness-based cancer recovery and supportive-expressive therapy maintain telomere length relative to controls in distressed breast cancer survivors. Cancer 121:3 (2014), 476–484.
19. Chiesa, A., Serretti, A., Mindfulness-based stress reduction for stress management in healthy people: a review and meta-analysis. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 15:5 (2009), 593–600.
20. Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., Miller, G.E., Psychological stress and disease. JAMA 298:14 (2007), 1685–1687.
21. Cole, S.W., Nagaraja, A.S., Lutgendorf, S.K., Green, P.A., Sood, A.K., Sympathetic nervous system regulation of the tumour microenvironment. Nat. Rev. Cancer. 15:9 (2015), 563–572.
22. Cohen, L., Cole, S.W., Sood, A.K., Prinsloo, S., Kirschbaum, C., Arevalo, J.M., Jennings, N.B., Scott, S., Vence, L., Wei, Q., Kentor, D., Radvanyi, L., Tannir, N., Jonasch, E., Tamboli, P., Pisters, L., Depressive symptoms and cortisol rhythmicity predict survival in patients with renal cell carcinoma: role of inflammatory signaling. PLoS One, 7(8), 2012, e42324.
23. Cohen, S., Janicki-Deverts, D., Doyle, W.J., Miller, G.E., Frank, E., Rabin, B.S., Turner, R.B., Chronic stress, glucocorticoid receptor resistance, inflammation, and disease risk. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 109:16 (2012), 5995–5999.
24. Cole, S.W., Hawkley, L.C., Arevalo, J.M., Sung, C.Y., Rose, R.M., Cacioppo, J.T., Social regulation of gene expression in human leukocytes. Genome Biol., 8(9), 2007, R189.
25. Cole, S.W., Mendoza, S.P., Capitanio, J.P., Social stress desensitizes lymphocytes to regulation by endogenous glucocorticoids: insights from in vivo cell trafficking dynamics in rhesus macaques. Psychosom. Med. 71:6 (2009), 591–597.
26. Cole, S.W., Arevalo, J.M., Takahashi, R., Sloan, E.K., Lutgendorf, S.K., Sood, A.K., Sheridan, J.F., Seeman, T.E., Computational identification of gene-social environment interaction at the human IL6 locus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 107:12 (2010), 5681–5686.
27. Cole, S.W., Social regulation of leukocyte homeostasis: the role of glucocorticoid sensitivity. Brain Behav. Immun. 22:7 (2008), 1049–1055.
28. Cole, S.W., Elevating the perspective on human stress genomics. Psychoneuroendocrinology 35:7 (2010), 955–962.
29. Cole, S.W., Human social genomics. PLoS Genet., 10(8), 2014, e1004601.
30. Compare, A., Zarbo, C., Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., Marconi, C., Emotional regulation and depression: a potential mediator between heart and mind. Cardiovasc. Psychiatry Neurol., 2014, 2014, 324374.
31. Corby, J.C., Roth, W.T., Zarcone, V.P. Jr., Kopell, B.S., Psychophysiological correlates of the practice of Tantric Yoga meditation. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 35:5 (1978), 571–577.
32. Creswell, J.D., Irwin, M.R., Burklund, L.J., Lieberman, M.D., Arevalo, J.M., Ma, J., Breen, E.C., Cole, S.W., Mindfulness-based stress reduction training reduces loneliness and pro-inflammatory gene expression in older adults: a small randomized controlled trial. Brain Behav. Immun. 26:7 (2012), 1095–1101.
33. Engström, M., Pihlsgård, J., Lundberg, P., Söderfeldt, B., Functional magnetic resonance imaging of hippocampal activation during silent mantra meditation. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 12 (2010), 1253–1258.
34. Decety, J., Lamm, C., The role of the right temporoparietal junction in social interaction: how low-level computational processes contribute to meta-cognition. Neuroscientist 13:6 (2007), 580–593.
35. Dolcos, F., Iordan, A.D., Dolcos, S., Neural correlates of emotion-cognition interactions: a review of evidence from brain imaging investigations. J. Cogn. Psychol. (Hove) 23:6 (2011), 669–694.
36. Dusek, J.A., Otu, H.H., Wohlhueter, A.L., Bhasin, M., Zerbini, L.F., Joseph, M.G., Benson, H., Libermann, T.A., Genomic counter-stress changes induced by the relaxation response. PLoS One, 3(7), 2008, e2576.
37. Engstrom, M., Pihlsgard, J., Lundberg, P., Soderfeldt, B., Functional magnetic resonance imaging of hippocampal activation during silent mantra meditation. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 16:12 (2010), 1253–1258.
38. Epel, E., Daubenmier, J., Moskowitz, J.T., Folkman, S., Blackburn, E., Can meditation slow rate of cellular aging? Cognitive stress, mindfulness, and telomeres. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1172 (2009), 34–53.
39. Ernst, E., Pittler, M.H., Wider, B., Boddy, K., Mind-body therapies: are the trial data getting stronger?. Altern. Ther. Health Med. 13:5 (2007), 62–64.
40. Fayed, N., Lopez Del Hoyo, Y., Andres, E., Serrano-Blanco, A., Bellon, J., Aguilar, K., Cebolla, A., Garcia-Campayo, J., Brain changes in long-term zen meditators using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy and diffusion tensor imaging: a controlled study. PLoS One, 8(3), 2013, e58476.
41. Feinstein, D.C.D., Modulating gene expression through psychotherapy: the contribution of noninvasive somatic interventions. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 14:4 (2010), 283–295.
42. Fell, J., Axmacher, N., Haupt, S., From alpha to gamma: electrophysiological correlates of meditation-related states of consciousness. Med. Hypotheses 75:2 (2010), 218–224.
43. Ferrarelli, F., Smith, R., Dentico, D., Riedner, B.A., Zennig, C., Benca, R.M., Lutz, A., Davidson, R.J., Tononi, G., Experienced mindfulness meditators exhibit higher parietal-occipital EEG gamma activity during NREM sleep. PLoS One, 8(8), 2013, e73417.
44. Field, T., Yoga clinical research review. Complement. Ther. Clin. Pract. 17:1 (2011), 1–8.
45. Fox, K.C., Nijeboer, S., Dixon, M.L., Floman, J.L., Ellamil, M., Rumak, S.P., Sedlmeier, P., Christoff, K., Is meditation associated with altered brain structure? A systematic review and meta-analysis of morphometric neuroimaging in meditation practitioners. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 43 (2014), 48–73.
46. Fredrickson, B.L., Grewen, K.M., Coffey, K.A., Algoe, S.B., Firestine, A.M., Arevalo, J.M., Ma, J., Cole, S.W., A functional genomic perspective on human well-being. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 110:33 (2013), 13684–13689.
47. Gard, T., Holzel, B.K., Lazar, S.W., The potential effects of meditation on age-related cognitive decline: a systematic review. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1307 (2014), 89–103.
48. Garland, E.L., Howard, M.O., Neuroplasticity, psychosocial genomics, and the biopsychosocial paradigm in the 21st century. Health Soc. Work 34:3 (2009), 191–199.
49. Garrison, K.A., Scheinost, D., Constable, R.T., Brewer, J.A., BOLD signal and functional connectivity associated with loving kindness meditation. Brain Behav. 4:3 (2014), 337–347.
50. Giordano, J., Boatwright, D., Stapleton, S., Huff, L., Blending the boundaries: steps toward an integration of complementary and alternative medicine into mainstream practice. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 8:6 (2002), 897–906.
51. Good, C.D., Johnsrude, I.S., Ashburner, J., Henson, R.N., Friston, K.J., Frackowiak, R.S., A voxel-based morphometric study of ageing in 465 normal adult human brains. Neuroimage 14:1 Pt 1 (2001), 21–36.
52. Grant, J.A., Courtemanche, J., Duerden, E.G., Duncan, G.H., Rainville, P., Cortical thickness and pain sensitivity in zen meditators. Emotion 10:1 (2010), 43–53.
53. Herman, P.M., Dodds, S.E., Logue, M.D., Abraham, I., Rehfeld, R.A., Grizzle, A.J., Urbine, T.F., Horwitz, R., Crocker, R.L., Maizes, V.H., IMPACT-Integrative Medicine PrimAry Care Trial: protocol for a comparative effectiveness study of the clinical and cost outcomes of an integrative primary care clinic model. BMC Complement. Altern. Med., 14, 2014, 132.
54. Holzel, B.K., Ott, U., Gard, T., Hempel, H., Weygandt, M., Morgen, K., Vaitl, D., Investigation of mindfulness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometry. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 3:1 (2008), 55–61.
55. Irwin, M.R., Cole, S.W., Reciprocal regulation of the neural and innate immune systems. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 11:9 (2011), 625–632.
56. Jacobs, T.L., Epel, E.S., Lin, J., Blackburn, E.H., Wolkowitz, O.M., Bridwell, D.A., Zanesco, A.P., Aichele, S.R., Sahdra, B.K., MacLean, K.A., King, B.G., Shaver, P.R., Rosenberg, E.L., Ferrer, E., Wallace, B.A., Saron, C.D., Intensive meditation training, immune cell telomerase activity, and psychological mediators. Psychoneuroendocrinology 36:5 (2011), 664–681.
57. Jang, J.H., Jung, W.H., Kang, D.H., Byun, M.S., Kwon, S.J., Choi, C.H., Kwon, J.S., Increased default mode network connectivity associated with meditation. Neurosci. Lett. 487:3 (2011), 358–362.
58. Jonas, W.B., Eisenberg, D., Hufford, D., Crawford, C., The evolution of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in the USA over the last 20 years. Forsch. Komplementmed. 20:1 (2013), 65–72.
59. Kaliman, P., Alvarez-Lopez, M.J., Cosin-Tomas, M., Rosenkranz, M.A., Lutz, A., Davidson, R.J., Rapid changes in histone deacetylases and inflammatory gene expression in expert meditators. Psychoneuroendocrinology 40 (2014), 96–107.
60. Kang, D.H., Jo, H.J., Jung, W.H., Kim, S.H., Jung, Y.H., Choi, C.H., Lee, U.S., An, S.C., Jang, J.H., Kwon, J.S., The effect of meditation on brain structure: cortical thickness mapping and diffusion tensor imaging. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 8:1 (2013), 27–33.
61. Kok, B.E., Fredrickson, B.L., Upward spirals of the heart: autonomic flexibility, as indexed by vagal tone, reciprocally and prospectively predicts positive emotions and social connectedness. Biol. Psychol. 85:3 (2010), 432–436.
62. Kuntsevich, V., Bushell, W.C., Theise, N.D., Mechanisms of yogic practices in health, aging, and disease. Mt. Sinai J. Med. 77:5 (2010), 559–569.
63. Lavretsky, H., Epel, E.S., Siddarth, P., Nazarian, N., Cyr, N.S., Khalsa, D.S., Lin, J., Blackburn, E., Irwin, M.R., A pilot study of yogic meditation for family dementia caregivers with depressive symptoms: effects on mental health, cognition, and telomerase activity. Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry 28:1 (2013), 57–65.
64. Lazar, S.W., Bush, G., Gollub, R.L., Fricchione, G.L., Khalsa, G., Benson, H., Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation. Neuroreport 11:7 (2000), 1581–1585.
65. Le Bihan, D., Mangin, J.-F., Poupon, C., Clark, C.A., Pappata, S., Molko, N., Chabriat, H., Diffusion tensor imaging: concepts and applications. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 13 (2001), 534–546.
66. Lehmann, D., Faber, P.L., Achermann, P., Jeanmonod, D., Gianotti, L.R., Pizzagalli, D., Brain sources of EEG gamma frequency during volitionally meditation-induced, altered states of consciousness, and experience of the self. Psychiatry Res. 108:2 (2001), 111–121.
67. Leung, M.K., Chan, C.C., Yin, J., Lee, C.F., So, K.F., Lee, T.M., Increased gray matter volume in the right angular and posterior parahippocampal gyri in loving-kindness meditators. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 8:1 (2013), 34–39.
68. Lee, T.M., Leung, M.K., Hou, W.K., Tang, J.C., Yin, J., So, K.F., Lee, C.F., Chan, C.C., Distinct neural activity associated with focused-attention meditation and loving-kindness meditation. PLoS One, 7(8), 2012, e40054.
69. Li, Q.Z., Li, P., Garcia, G.E., Johnson, R.J., Feng, L., Genomic profiling of neutrophil transcripts in Asian Qigong practitioners: a pilot study in gene regulation by mind-body interaction. J. Altern. Complement. Med. 11:1 (2005), 29–39.
70. Li, S.C., Neuromodulation and developmental contextual influences on neural and cognitive plasticity across the lifespan. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 37:9 Pt. B (2013), 2201–2208.
71. Loizzo, J., Meditation research, past, present, and future: perspectives from the Nalanda contemplative science tradition. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1307 (2014), 43–54.
72. Loucks, E.B., Sullivan, L.M., D'Agostino, R.B. Sr., Larson, M.G., Berkman, L.F., Benjamin, E.J., Social networks and inflammatory markers in the Framingham Heart Study. J. Biosoc. Sci. 38:6 (2006), 835–842.
73. Loucks, E.B., Britton, W.B., Howe, C.J., Eaton, C.B., Buka, S.L., Positive associations of dispositional mindfulness with cardiovascular health: the new england family study. Int. J. Behav. Med. 22:4 (2015), 540–550.
74. Luders, E., Toga, A.W., Lepore, N., Gaser, C., The underlying anatomical correlates of long-term meditation: larger hippocampal and frontal volumes of gray matter. Neuroimage 45:3 (2009), 672–678.
75. Luders, E., Kurth, F., Toga, A.W., Narr, K.L., Gaser, C., Meditation effects within the hippocampal complex revealed by voxel-based morphometry and cytoarchitectonic probabilistic mapping. Front. Psychol., 4(398), 2013.
76. Luders, E., Thompson, P.M., Kurth, F., Hong, J.Y., Phillips, O.R., Wang, Y., Gutman, B.A., Chou, Y.Y., Narr, K.L., Toga, A.W., Global and regional alterations of hippocampal anatomy in long-term meditation practitioners. Hum. Brain Mapp. 34:12 (2013), 3369–3375.
77. Luders, E., Cherbuin, N., Kurth, F., Forever young(er): potential age-defying effects of long-term meditation on gray matter atrophy. Front. Psychol., 5(1551), 2014.
78. Luders, E., Cherbuin, N., Kurth, F., Forever Young(er): potential age-defying effects of long-term meditation on gray matter atrophy. Front. Psychol., 5, 2015, 1551.
79. Lutgendorf, S.K., Cole, S., Costanzo, E., Bradley, S., Coffin, J., Jabbari, S., Rainwater, K., Ritchie, J.M., Yang, M., Sood, A.K., Stress-related mediators stimulate vascular endothelial growth factor secretion by two ovarian cancer cell lines. Clin. Cancer Res. 9:12 (2003), 4514–4521.
80. Lutgendorff, F., Akkermans, L.M., Söderholm, J.D., The role of microbiota and probiotics in stress-induced gastro-intestinal damage. Curr. Mol. Med. 8:4 (2008), 282–298.
81. Lutgendorf, S.K., DeGeest, K., Sung, C.Y., Arevalo, J.M., Penedo, F., Lucci, J. 3rd, Goodheart, M., Lubaroff, D., Farley, D.M., Sood, A.K., Cole, S.W., Depression, social support, and beta-adrenergic transcription control in human ovarian cancer. Brain Behav. Immun. 23:2 (2009), 176–183.
82. Lutz, A., Greischar, L.L., Rawlings, N.B., Ricard, M., Davidson, R.J., Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 101:46 (2004), 16369–16373.
83. Lutz, A., Brefczynski-Lewis, J., Johnstone, T., Davidson, R.J., Regulation of the neural circuitry of emotion by compassion meditation: effects of meditative expertise. PLoS One, 3(3), 2008, e1897.
84. Lutz, A., Greischar, L.L., Perlman, D.M., Davidson, R.J., BOLD signal in insula is differentially related to cardiac function during compassion meditation in experts vs. novices. Neuroimage 47:3 (2009), 1038–1046.
85. Manna, A., Raffone, A., Perrucci, M.G., Nardo, D., Ferretti, A., Tartaro, A., Londei, A., Del Gratta, C., Belardinelli, M.O., Romani, G.L., Neural correlates of focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditation. Brain Res. Bull. 82:1-2 (2010), 46–56.
86. Marchand, W.R., Neural mechanisms of mindfulness and meditation: evidence from neuroimaging studies. World J. Radiol. 6:7 (2014), 471–479.
87. Marsland, A.L., Gianaros, P.J., Prather, A.A., Jennings, J.R., Neumann, S.A., Manuck, S.B., Stimulated production of proinflammatory cytokines covaries inversely with heart rate variability. Psychosom. Med. 69:8 (2007), 709–716.
88. Mascaro, J.S., Rilling, J.K., Tenzin Negi, L., Raison, C.L., Compassion meditation enhances empathic accuracy and related neural activity. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 8:1 (2013), 48–55.
89. Miller, G.E., Chen, E., Sze, J., Marin, T., Arevalo, J.M., Doll, R., Ma, R., Cole, S.W., A functional genomic fingerprint of chronic stress in humans: blunted glucocorticoid and increased NF-kappaB signaling. Biol. Psychiatry 64:4 (2008), 266–272.
90. Miller, G.E., Rohleder, N., Cole, S.W., Chronic interpersonal stress predicts activation of pro- and anti-inflammatory signaling pathways 6 months later. Psychosom. Med. 71:1 (2009), 57–62.
91. Miller, G.E., Murphy, M.L., Cashman, R., Ma, R., Ma, J., Arevalo, J.M., Kobor, M.S., Cole, S.W., Greater inflammatory activity and blunted glucocorticoid signaling in monocytes of chronically stressed caregivers. Brain Behav. Immun. 41 (2014), 191–199.
92. Morey, J.N., Boggero, I.A., Scott, A.B., Segerstrom, S.C., Current Directions in Stress and Human Immune. Function. Curr. Opin. Psychol. 1:5 (2015), 13–17.
93. Moritz, S., Kelly, M.T., Xu, T.J., Toews, J., Rickhi, B., A spirituality teaching program for depression: qualitative findings on cognitive and emotional change. Complement. Ther. Med. 19:4 (2011), 201–207.
94. Murphy, M.L., Slavich, G.M., Rohleder, N., Miller, G.E., Targeted rejection triggers differential pro- and anti-inflammatory gene expression in adolescents as a function of social status. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 1:1 (2013), 30–40.
95. National Institutes of Health, What is complementary and alternative medicine?. 2007 Retrieved 1/20/2015, 2015, from http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/fpc/cww/CamBasics.pdf.
96. Nebel, K., Wiese, H., Stude, P., de Greiff, A., Diener, H.C., Keidel, M., On the neural basis of focused and divided attention. Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res. 25:3 (2005), 760–776.
97. Northoff, G., Heinzel, A., de Greck, M., Bermpohl, F., Dobrowolny, H., Panksepp, J., Self-referential processing in our brain-a meta-analysis of imaging studies on the self. Neuroimage 31:1 (2006), 440–457.
98. Ornish, D., Lin, J., Daubenmier, J., Weidner, G., Epel, E., Kemp, C., Magbanua, M.J., Marlin, R., Yglecias, L., Carroll, P.R., Blackburn, E.H., Increased telomerase activity and comprehensive lifestyle changes: a pilot study. Lancet Oncol. 9:11 (2008), 1048–1057.
99. Ornish, D., Lin, J., Chan, J.M., Epel, E., Kemp, C., Weidner, G., Marlin, R., Frenda, S.J., Magbanua, M.J., Daubenmier, J., Estay, I., Hills, N.K., Chainani-Wu, N., Carroll, P.R., Blackburn, E.H., Effect of comprehensive lifestyle changes on telomerase activity and telomere length in men with biopsy-proven low-risk prostate cancer: 5-year follow-up of a descriptive pilot study. Lancet Oncol. 14:11 (2013), 1112–1120.
100. Oke, S.L., Tracey, K.J., The inflammatory reflex and the role of complementary and alternative medical therapies. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1172 (2009), 172–180.
101. Pagnoni, G., Cekic, M., Age effects on gray matter volume and attentional performance in Zen meditation. Neurobiol. Aging 28:10 (2007), 1623–1627.
102. Park, G., Thayer, J.F., From the heart to the mind: cardiac vagal tone modulates top-down and bottom-up visual perception and attention to emotional stimuli. Front. Psychol., 5(278), 2014.
103. Pavlov, V.A., Tracey, K.J., The vagus nerve and the inflammatory reflex-linking immunity and metabolism. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 8:12 (2012), 743–754.
104. Porges, S.W., Cardiac vagal tone: a physiological index of stress. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 19:2 (1995), 225–233.
105. Praissman, S., Mindfulness-based stress reduction: a literature review and clinician's guide. J. Am. Acad. Nurse Pract. 20:4 (2008), 212–216.
106. Qu, S., Olafsrud, S.M., Meza-Zepeda, L.A., Saatcioglu, F., Rapid gene expression changes in peripheral blood lymphocytes upon practice of a comprehensive yoga program. PLoS One, 8(4), 2013, e61910.
107. Rapgay, L., Rinpoche, V.L., Jessum, R., Exploring the nature and functions of the mind: a Tibetan Buddhist meditative perspective. Prog. Brain Res. 122 (2000), 507–515.
108. Rohleder, N., Marin, T.J., Ma, R., Miller, G.E., Biologic cost of caring for a cancer patient: dysregulation of pro- and anti-inflammatory signaling pathways. J. Clin. Oncol. 27:18 (2009), 2909–2915.
109. Saatcioglu, F., Regulation of gene expression by yoga, meditation and related practices: a review of recent studies. Asian J. Psychiatr. 6:1 (2013), 74–77.
110. Sharma, H., Datta, P., Singh, A., Sen, S., Bhardwaj, N.K., Kochupillai, V., Singh, N., Gene expression profiling in practitioners of Sudarshan Kriya. J. Psychosom. Res. 64:2 (2008), 213–218.
111. Shimomura, T., Fujiki, M., Akiyoshi, J., Yoshida, T., Tabata, M., Kabasawa, H., Kobayashi, H., Functional brain mapping during recitation of Buddhist scriptures and repetition of the Namu Amida Butsu: a study in experienced Japanese monks. Turk. Neurosurg. 18:2 (2008), 134–141.
112. Slavich, G.M., Cole, S.W., The emerging field of human social genomics. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 1:3 (2013), 331–348.
113. Slavich, G.M., Irwin, M.R., From stress to inflammation and major depressive disorder: a social signal transduction theory of depression. Psychol. Bull. 140:3 (2014), 774–815.
114. Spencer, J.W., Jacobs, J.J., Complementary and Alternative Medicine: an EvidenceBased Approach. 2003, Mosby, St. Louis, MO.
115. Swaab, D.F., Bao, A.M., Lucassen, P.J., The stress system in the human brain in depression and neurodegeneration. Ageing Res. Rev. 4:2 (2005), 141–194.
116. Takimoto-Ohnishi, E., Ohnishi, J., Murakami, K., Mind-body medicine: effect of the mind on gene expression. Pers. Med. Universe 1:1 (2012), 2–6.
117. Taylor, A.G., Goehler, L.E., Galper, D.I., Innes, K.E., Bourguignon, C., Top-down and bottom-up mechanisms in mind-body medicine: development of an integrative framework for psychophysiological research. Explore (NY) 6:1 (2010), 29–41.
118. Taylor, V.A., Daneault, V., Grant, J., Scavone, G., Breton, E., Roffe-Vidal, S., Courtemanche, J., Lavarenne, A.S., Marrelec, G., Benali, H., Beauregard, M., Impact of meditation training on the default mode network during a restful state. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 8:1 (2013), 4–14.
119. Tei, S., Faber, P.L., Lehmann, D., Tsujiuchi, T., Kumano, H., Pascual-Marqui, R.D., Gianotti, L.R., Kochi, K., Meditators and non-meditators: EEG source imaging during resting. Brain Topogr. 22:3 (2009), 158–165.
120. Thayer, J.F., Sternberg, E., Beyond heart rate variability: vagal regulation of allostatic systems. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1088 (2006), 361–372.
121. Thomas, J.W., Cohen, M., A methodological review of meditation research. Front. Psychiatry, 5, 2014, 74.
122. Tonhajzerova, I., Mokra, D., Visnovcova, Z., Vagal function indexed by respiratory sinus arrhythmia and cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway. Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol. 187:1 (2013), 78–81.
123. Taren, A.A., Gianaros, P.J., Greco, C.M., Lindsay, E.K., Fairgrieve, A., Brown, K.W., Rosen, R.K., Ferris, J.L., Julson, E., Marsland, A.L., Bursley, J.K., Ramsburg, J., Creswell, J.D., Mindfulness meditation training alters stress-related amygdala resting state functional connectivity: a randomized controlled trial. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neurosci. 10:12 (2015), 1758–1768.
124. Tracey, K.J., The inflammatory reflex. Nature 420:6917 (2002), 853–859.
125. Tracey, K.J., Physiology and immunology of the cholinergic antiinflammatory pathway. J. Clin. Invest. 117:2 (2007), 289–296.
126. Travis, F., Shear, J., Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions. Conscious. Cogn. 19:4 (2010), 1110–1118.
127. Travis, F., Tecce, J., Arenander, A., Wallace, R.K., Patterns of EEG coherence, power, and contingent negative variation characterize the integration of transcendental and waking states. Biol. Psychol. 61:3 (2002), 293–319.
128. Travis, F., Arenander, A., DuBois, D., Psychological and physiological characteristics of a proposed object-referral/self-referral continuum of self-awareness. Conscious. Cogn. 13:2 (2004), 401–420.
129. Travis, F., Transcendental experiences during meditation practice. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1307 (2014), 1–8.
130. Umberson, D., Montez, J.K., Social relationships and health: a flashpoint for health policy. J. Health Soc. Behav. 51:Suppl (2010), S54–S66.
131. vanCampen, J.S., Jansen, F.E., Pet, M.A., Otte, W.M., Hillegers, M.H., Joels, M., Braun, K.P., Relation between stress-precipitated seizures and the stress response in childhood epilepsy. Brain 138:8 (2015), 2234–2248.
132. Vestergaard-Poulsen, P., van Beek, M., Skewes, J., Bjarkam, C.R., Stubberup, M., Bertelsen, J., Roepstorff, A., Long-term meditation is associated with increased gray matter density in the brain stem. Neuroreport 20:2 (2009), 170–174.
133. Wang, D.J., Rao, H., Korczykowski, M., Wintering, N., Pluta, J., Khalsa, D.S., Newberg, A.B., Cerebral blood flow changes associated with different meditation practices and perceived depth of meditation. Psychiatry Res. 191:1 (2011), 60–67.
134. Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Ford, J.M., Default mode network activity and connectivity in psychopathology. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 8 (2012), 49–76.
135. Wolf, J.M., Rohleder, N., Bierhaus, A., Nawroth, P.P., Kirschbaum, C., Determinants of the NF-kappaB response to acute psychosocial stress in humans. Brain Behav. Immun. 23:6 (2009), 742–749.
136. Yang, Y.C., McClintock, M.K., Kozloski, M., Li, T., Social isolation and adult mortality: the role of chronic inflammation and sex differences. J. Health Soc. Behav. 54:2 (2013), 183–203.
137. Yang, Y.C., Schorpp, K., Harris, K.M., Social support, social strain and inflammation: evidence from a national longitudinal study of U.S. adults. Soc. Sci. Med. 107 (2014), 124–135.
138. Zhang, L., Hu, X.Z., Li, X., Li, H., Smerin, S., Russell, D., Ursano, R.J., Telomere length—a cellular aging marker for depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. Med. Hypotheses 83:2 (2014), 182–185.