Spatial accessibility to health care services: Identifying under-serviced neighbourhoods in Canadian urban areas

PLoS ONE

Volumn 11, Issue 12, 2016, Pages

  Shah, Tayyab Ikram ^a   Bell, Scott ^b   Wilson, Kathi ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANADA; CATCHMENT; COLLEGE; DOCTOR PATIENT RELATION; EMERGENCY WARD; GENERAL PRACTITIONER; HEALTH CARE NEED; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; NEIGHBORHOOD; NURSE PRACTITIONER; PRIMARY HEALTH CARE; SURGEON; URBAN AREA; CITY PLANNING; FEMALE; GENERAL PRACTICE; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEALTH SERVICE; MALE;

CANADA; FAMILY PRACTICE; FEMALE; HEALTH SERVICES ACCESSIBILITY; HUMANS; MALE; URBAN HEALTH SERVICES; URBAN RENEWAL;

EID: 85006868219     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19326203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168208     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Canada Health ActCanadian health care policy, Stat. 31 (1) and (2) of the Legislation Revision and Consolidation Act (1985).
2. Hanlon NT, Rosenberg MW. Not-so-new public management and the denial of geography: Ontario health-care reform in the 1990s. Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 1998; 16: 559-72.
3. Giacomini MK. The Which-Hunt: Assembling Health Technologies for Assessment and Rationing. 1999. p. 715-58.
4. James AM. Closing rural hospitals in Saskatchewan: On the road to wellness? Social Science and Medicine. 1999; 49: 1021-34. PMID: 10475667
5. Mendelsohn M. Canadians Thoughts on their Health Care System: Preserving the Canadian Model Through Innovation. Saskatoon: Commission on the Future of Health Care in Canada, 2002.
6. Canada. Geographic Units, Dissemination Areas Ottawa: Statistics Canada; 2001 [cited 2007 September 7]. Available from: Http://www.census2006.ca/english/census01/products/reference/dict/geo021.htm.
7. Statcan. Access to a regular medical doctor, 2014: Statistics Canada; 2014 [updated Nov 27, 2015; cited 2016 June 05, 2016]. Available from: Http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-625-x/2015001/article/14177-eng.htm.
8. Sanmartin C, Shortt SED, Barer ML, Sheps S, Lewis S, McDonald PW. Waiting for medical services in Canada: Lots of heat, but little light. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2000; 162(9): 1305-10. PMID: 10813013
9. Wilson, Rosenberg M. The geographies of crisis: Exploring accessibility to health care in Canada. Canadian Geographer. 2002; 46(3): 223-34.
10. Statcan. Unmet health care needs, 2014: Statistics Canada; 2016 [updated February 9, 2016; cited 2016 July 28, 2016]. Available from: Http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-625-x/2016001/article/14310- eng.htm#moreinfo.
11. Sanmartin C, Gendron F, Berthelot JM, Murphy K. Access to Health Care Services in Canada, 2003. Minister of Industry, 2004.
12. Schoen C, Osborn R, Huynh PT, Doty M, Davis K, Zapert K, et al. Primary Care and Health System Performance: Adults' Experiences in Five Countries. Health Affairs. 2004; 4: 487-503.
13. Hull A. Neighbourhood renewal: A toolkit for regeneration. GeoJournal. 2000; 51(4): 301-10.
14. Burrows R, Bradshaw J. Does place matter? Evidence-based policy and practice. Environment and Planning A. 2001; 33(8): 1345-8.
15. Macintyre S, Maciver S, Sooman A. Area, class and health: Should we be focusing on places or people? Journal of Social Policy. 1993; 22: 213-34.
16. Mitchell R, Gleave S, Bartley M, Wiggins D, Joshi H. Do attitude and area influence health? A multilevel approach to health inequalities. Health and Place. 2000; 6: 67-9. PMID: 10785349
17. Yen IH, Kaplan GA. Neighbourhood social environment and risk of death: Multilevel evidence from the Alameda County study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1999; 149: 898-907. PMID: 10342798
18. O'Campo P, X X., Wang MC. Neighbourhood risk factors for low birthweight in Baltimore: A multi-level analysis. American Journal of Public Health. 1997; 87: 1113-8. PMID: 9240099
19. Law M, Wilson K, Eyles J, Elliott S, Jerrett M, Moffatt T, et al. Meeting health need, accessing health care: The role of neighbourhood. Health and Place. 2005; 11(4): 367-77. doi: 10.1016/j.healthplace. 2004.05.004 PMID: 15886144
20. Raphael D., Renwick R., Brown I., Steinmetz B., Sehdev H., S. P. Making the links between community structure and individual well-being: Community quality of life in Riverdale, Toronto, Canada. Health and Place. 2001; 7(3): 17-34.
21. Wilson K, Elliott S, Law M, Eyles J, Jerrett M, Olaman S. Linking perceptions of neighbourhood to health in Hamilton, Canada. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 2004; 58(3): 192-8. doi: 10.1136/jech.2003.014308 PMID: 14966230
22. Diez-Roux AV, Nieto FJ, Muntaner C, Tyroler HA, Comstock GW, Shahar E, et al. Neighborhood environments and coronary heart disease: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1997; 146(1): 48-63. PMID: 9215223
23. Ellaway A. Perceptions of Place and Health in Socially Contrasting Neighbourhoods. Urban Studies. 2001; 38(12): 2299-316.
24. Malmstrom M. Neighborhood environment and self-reported health status: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Public Health. 1999; 89(8): 1181-6. PMID: 10432903
25. Cummins S, Stafford M, Macintyre S, Marmot M, Ellaway A. Neighbourhood environment and its association with self rated health: Evidence from Scotland and England. BMJ; 2005. p. 207-13. doi: 10.1136/jech.2003.016147 PMID: 15709080
26. Morland K, Wing S, Diez Roux A, Poole C. Neighborhood characteristics associated with the location of food stores and food service places. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2002; 22(1): 23-9. PMID: 11777675
27. Roos N, Mustard C. Variation in Health and Health Care Use by Socioeconomic Status in Winnipeg, Canada: Does the System Work Well? Yes and No. Millbank Memorial Fund Quarterly. 1997; 75 (1): 89-111.
28. Chan BT, Austin PC. Patient, physician, and community factors affecting referrals to specialists in Ontario, Canada: A population-based, multi-level modelling approach. Medical Care. 2003; 41(4): 500-11. doi: 10.1097/01.MLR.0000053971.89707.97 PMID: 12665714
29. Yip AM, Kephart G, Veugelers PJ. Individual and neighbourhood determinants of health care utilization. Implications for health policy and resource allocation. Canadian Journal of Public Health. 2002; 93(4): 303-7. PMID: 12154535
30. Penchansky R, Thomas JW. The Concept of Access: Definition and Relationship to Consumer Satisfaction. Medical care. 1981; 19(2): 127-40. PMID: 7206846
31. Birch S, Abelson J. Is reasonable access what we want? Implications of, and challenges to, current Canadian policy on equity in health care. International Journal of Health Services. 1993; 23(4): 629-54. PMID: 8080493
32. Aday LA, Andersen R. A Framework for the Study of Access to Medical Care. Health services research. 1974; 9(3): 208-20. PMID: 4436074
33. Khan AA. An integrated approach to measuring potential spatial access to health care services. Socioeconomic planning sciences. 1992; 26(4): 275-87. PMID: 10123094
34. Joseph AE, Phillips DR. Accessibility and Utilization: Geographical Perspectives on Health Care Delivery. First ed. New York: Harper & Row; 1984.
35. Guagliardo MF. Spatial accessibility of primary care: Concepts, methods and challenges. International Journal of Health Geographics. 2004; 3(Journal Article): 3-13. doi: 10.1186/1476-072X-3-3 PMID: 14987337
36. Luo W, Wang F. Measures of spatial accessibility to health care in a GIS environment: Synthesis and a case study in the Chicago region. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design. 2003; 30 (6): 865-84.
37. Statistics Canada. CMA and CA: Detailed definition Ottawa, ON2013 [updated May 13, 2013; cited 2013 Dec 03]. Available from: Http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/92-195-x/2011001/geo/cma-rmr/def-eng. htm.
38. Bell S, Wilson K, Bissonette L, Shah T. Access to primary health care: Does neighbourhood of residence matter? Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 2013; 103(1): 85-105. Epub 22 Jun 2012.
39. Ross NA, Tremblay S, Graham K. Neighbourhood influences on health in Montreaal, Canada. Social science & medicine. 2004; 59(7): 1485-94.
40. Bissonnette L, Wilson K, Bell S, Shah TI. Neighbourhoods and potential access to health care: The role of spatial and aspatial factors. Health & Place. 2012; 18(4): 841-53.
41. Flowerdew R, Manley DJ, Sabel CE. Neighbourhood effects on health: Does it matter where you draw the boundaries? Social science & medicine. 2008; 66(6): 1241-55.
42. City of Edmonton. Neighbourhood Revitalization Edmonton, AB [cited 2014 July 16]. Available from: Http://www.edmonton.ca/city-government/projects-redevelopment/neighbourhood-revitalization. aspx.
43. City of Hamilton. Neighbourhood Development Strategy Hamilton, ON [cited 2014 July 16]. Available from: Http://www.hamilton.ca/ProjectsInitiatives/NeighbourhoodDevelopment/.
44. City of Ottawa. City of Ottawa's Neighbourhood Planning Initiative Ottawa, ON [cited 2014 July 16]. Available from: Http://carleton.ca/cure/research-activities/city-of-ottawas-neighbourhood-planninginitiative/.
45. City of Saskatoon. Neighbourhood planning section: Year-end report 2013 Saskatoon, SK2014 [cited 2014 July 16]. Available from: Http://www.saskatoon.ca/DEPARTMENTS/Community%20Services/PlanningDevelopment/NeighbourhoodPlanning/Documents/NP%202013%20Annual%20Report- FINAL.pdf.
46. Health Canada. About Primary Health Care Ottawa2006 [cited 2012 16 July]. Available from: Http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hcs-sss/prim/about-apropos-eng.php#a1.
47. Crooks VA, Andrews GJ. Thinking geographically about primary health care. In: Crooks VA, Andrews GJ, editors. Primary health care: People, practice, place. Burlington, VT: Farnham; 2009. p. 1-20.
48. Rakel RE. The Family Physician. 2011. In: Textbook of Family Medicine [Internet]. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 8th. [3-17].
49. Gozu A, Nidiry MA, Ratanawongsa N, Carrese JA, Wright SM. Patient factors associated with following a relocated primary care provider among older adults. The american journal of managed care. 2009; 15(3): 195-200. PMID: 19298101
50. Aspen L, Shah TI, Wilson K, Bell S. Does Location Matter: Effects of Distance & Practice Size on Consumer Preferences for Seeking Primary Healthcare. HealthGIS 2012First SIGSPATIAL International Workshop on the use of GIS in Public Health; Redondo Beach, California: ACM SIGSPATIAL; 2012.
51. Kazanjian A, Pagliccia N. Key factors in physicians' choice of practice location: Findings from a survey of practitioners and their spouses. Health & place. 1996; 2(1): 27-34.
52. Rosenberg MW. PHYSICIAN LOCATION BEHAVIOUR IN METROPOLITAN TORONTO. The Canadian Geographer. 1984; 28(2): 156-70.
53. Federal/Provincial/Territorial Advisory Committee on Population Health and Health Security HDTF. Reducing Health Disparities-Roles of the Health Sector: Recommended Policy Directions and Activities. Minister of Health; 2005.
54. Provincial Health Services Authority. Towards Reducing Health Inequities: A Health System Approach to Chronic Disease Prevention. A Discussion Paper. Vancourver: BC: Population & Public Health, Provincial Health Services Authority, 2011.
55. Canadian Institute for Health Information. Supply, Distribution and Migration of Canadian Physicians, 2014. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI), 2015 Aug 08, 2016. Report No.: 978-1-77109-400-9 Contract No.: 978-1-77109-400-9.
56. Shah TI, Bell S, Wilson K. Geocoding for public health research: Empirical comparison of two geocoding services applied to Canadian cities. The Canadian Geographer. 2014; 58(4): 400-17.
57. Wang F. Measurement, Optimization, and Impact of Health Care Accessibility: A Methodological Review. Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 2012.
58. Schuurman N, Berube M, Crooks VA. Measuring potential spatial access to primary health care physicians using a modified gravity model. The Canadian Geographer. 2010; 54(1): 29-45.
59. Radke J, Mu L. Spatial Decompositions, Modeling and Mapping Service Regions to Predict Access to Social Programs. Geographic Information Sciences. 2000; 6(2): 105-12.
60. Luo W. Using a GIS-based floating catchment method to assess areas with shortage of physicians. Health & place. 2004; 10(1): 1-11.
61. Wang F, Luo W. Assessing spatial and nonspatial factors for healthcare access: Towards an integrated approach to defining health professional shortage areas. Special section: Geographies of Intellectual Disability. 2005; 11(2): 131-46.
62. Fransen K, Neutens T, De Maeyer P, Deruyter G. A commuter-based two-step floating catchment area method for measuring spatial accessibility of daycare centers. Health & Place. 2015; 32: 65-73.
63. Luo W, Qi Y. An enhanced two-step floating catchment area (E2SFCA) method for measuring spatial accessibility to primary care physicians. Health & place. 2009; 15(4): 1100-7.
64. Delamater PL. Spatial accessibility in suboptimally configured health care systems: A modified twostep floating catchment area (M2SFCA) metric. Health & Place. 2013; 24: 30-43.
65. Langford M, Higgs G, Fry R. Multi-modal two-step floating catchment area analysis of primary health care accessibility. Health & Place. 2016; 38: 70-81.
66. Masoodi M, Rahimzadeh M. Measuring access to urban health services using Geographical Information System (GIS): A case study of health service management in Bandar Abbas, Iran. International Journal of Health Policy and Management. 2015; 4(7): 439-45. doi: 10.15171/ijhpm.2015.23 PMID: 26188808
67. Luo J. Analyzing Potential Spatial Access to Primary Care Services with an Enhanced Floating Catchment Area Method. Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization. 2016; 51(1): 12-24.
68. Jamtsho S, Corner R, Dewan A. Spatio-Temporal Analysis of Spatial Accessibility to Primary Health Care in Bhutan. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information. 2015; 4(3): 1584-604.
69. Vo A, Plachkinova M, Bhaskar R. Assessing Healthcare Accessibility Algorithms: A Comprehensive Investigation of Two-Step Floating Catchment Methodologies Family. Twenty-first Americas Conference on Information Systems; August 13-15; Puerto Rico2015.
70. McGrail M. Spatial accessibility of primary health care utilising the two step floating catchment area method: An assessment of recent improvements. International Journal of Health Geographics. 2012; 11(1): 50.
71. Luo W, Whippo T. Variable catchment sizes for the two-step floating catchment area (2SFCA) method. Health & place. 2012; 18(4): 789-95.
72. Terry MM, Terry DR, Hoang H, Hannah C. The Shortage-Surplus Paradox: A Literature Review of Primary Health Care Accessibility. Universal Journal of Public Health. 2013; 1(3): 40-50.
73. Paez A, Mercado RG, Farber S, Morency C, Roorda M. Accessibility to health care facilities in Montreal Island: An application of relative accessibility indicators from the perspective of senior and nonsenior residents. International Journal of Health Geographics. 2010; 9(Journal Article): 52-. doi: 10.1186/1476-072X-9-52 PMID: 20973969
74. Cromley EK, McLafferty SL. GIS and public health. Second ed. New York, NY: The Guilford Press; 2012.
75. Fahui W. Quantitative Methods and Applications in GIS. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group; 2006.
76. McGrail MR, Humphreys JS. Measuring spatial accessibility to primary care in rural areas: Improving the effectiveness of the two-step floating catchment area method. Applied Geography. 2009; 29 (4): 533-41.
77. Allan D. Catchments of general practice in different countries- A literature review. International Journal of Health Geographics. 2014; 13(1): 32.
78. Ngui A, Apparicio P. Optimizing the two-step floating catchment area method for measuring spatial accessibility to medical clinics in Montreal. BMC Health Services Research. 2011; 11(1): 166.
79. Goodman DC, Mick SS, Bott D, Stukel T, Chang C-h, Marth N, et al. Primary Care Service Areas: A New Tool for the Evaluation of Primary Care Services. Health services research. 2003; 38(1p1): 287-309.
80. Statistics Canada. GeoSuite, 2011 Census [dissemination area]. 2011.
81. DMTI Spatial. Neighbourhood (NBH) and Community (CMN) Boundaries V2011.3 [CANnbh Shapefile]. In: Inc. DS, editor. Markham, Ontario2011.
82. Anselin L. Local Indicators of Spatial Association-LISA. Geographical Analysis. 1995; 27(2): 93-115.
83. Anselin L, Syabri I, Kho Y. GeoDa: An Introduction to Spatial Data Analysis. Geographical Analysis. 2006; 38(1): 5-22.
84. Dewan AM, Corner R, Hashizume M, Ongee ET. Typhoid Fever and Its Association with Environmental Factors in the Dhaka Metropolitan Area of Bangladesh: A Spatial and Time-Series Approach. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2013; 7(1): E1998. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001998 PMID: 23359825
85. Anselin L, Syabri I, Kho Y. GeoDa: An Introduction to Spatial Data Analysis. In: Fischer MM, Getis A, editors. Handbook of Applied Spatial Analysis: Software Tools, Methods and Applications. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2010. p. 73-89.
86. Matheson FI, Dunn JR, Smith KLW, Moineddin R, Glazier RH. Development of the Canadian Marginalization Index: A New Tool for the Study of Inequality. Canadian journal of public health. 2012; 103(8): S12-S6.
87. Pampalon R, Hamel D, Gamache P, Philibert MD, Raymond G, Simpson A. An Area-based Material and Social Deprivation Index for Public Health in Queabec and Canada. Canadian journal of public health. 2012; 103(8): S17-S22.
88. Bell N, Hayes MV. The Vancouver Area Neighbourhood Deprivation Index (VANDIX): A Censusbased Tool for Assessing Small-area Variations in Health Status. Canadian journal of public health. 2012; 103(8): S28-S32.
89. Andersen RM, Davidson PL. Improving access to care in America. In: Andersen RM, Rice TH, Kominski GF, editors. Changing the US Health Care System: Key issues in health services, policy, and management. 1. San Francisco, CA: Jorrey-Bass; 2001. p. 3-30.
90. Statistics Canada. Census of population, 2006 [Canada]: Table 94-575-XCB2006002: Profile of Age and Sex for Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Divisions, Census Subdivisions and Dissemination Areas. Ottawa: Data Liberation Initiative; 2007.
91. Post S, editor Evaluating Data Quality in a Large Voluntary Survey: Canada's National Household Survey Federal Committee on Statistical Methodology (FCSM) Research Conference 2013 November 4-6, 2013; Washington, DC: Federal Committee on Statistical Methodology.
92. Walton-Roberts M, Beaujot R, Hiebert D, McDaniel S, Rose D, Wright R. Why do we still need a census? Views from the age of "truthiness" and the "death of evidence". The Canadian Geographer. 2014; 58(1): 34-47.
93. Community Development Halton. 2011 National Household Survey (NHS) Community Dispatch [Internet]. 2013 April 26, 2014; Vol. 18(5). Available from: Http://www.cdhalton.ca/publications/communitydispatch/community-dispatch-archive/489-cd1805.
94. Bell S, Wei T, editors. Mapping the Spatial Pattern of the Uncertain Data: A comparison of Global Nonresponse Rate (GNR) between Metropolitan and Non-Metropolitan Area. Spatial Knowledge and Information Canada; 2014; Banff, AB.
95. Goldberg DW, Wilson JP, Knoblock CA. From text to geographic coordinates: The current state of geocoding. URISA Journal. 2007; 19(1): 33-46.
96. Hurley SE, Saunders TM, Nivas R, Hertz A, Reynolds P. Post Office Box Addresses: A Challenge for Geographic Information System-Based Studies. Epidemiology. 2003; 14(4): 386-91. doi: 10.1097/01. EDE.0000073161.66729.89 PMID: 12843760
97. Griffith DA, Millones M, Vincent M, Johnson DL, Hunt A. Impacts of Positional Error on Spatial Regression Analysis: A Case Study of Address Locations in Syracuse, New York. Transactions in GIS. 2007; 11(5): 655-79.
98. Zandbergen P. Influence of geocoding quality on environmental exposure assessment of children living near high traffic roads. BMC Public Health. 2007; 7(1): 37.
99. Jacquez GM. A research agenda: Does geocoding positional error matter in health GIS studies? Spatial and Spatio-temporal Epidemiology. 2012; 3(1): 7-16. doi: 10.1016/j.sste.2012.02.002 PMID: 22469487
100. Charney I. Property developers and the robust downtown: The case of four major Canadian downtowns. Canadian Geographer/Le Geaographe canadien. 2005; 49(3): 301-12.
101. Broadway M. Differences in inner-city deprivation: An analysis of seven Canadian cities. Canadian Geographer. 1992; 36(2): 189-96.
102. Hou F, Picot G. Visible minority neighbourhoods in Toronto, Montreaal, and Vancouver. Canadian Social Trends. 2004; 72: 8-13.
103. Canadian Institutes of Health Research. SPOR Network in Primary and Integrated Health Care Innovations: Background, goals, objectives, governance and priority focus Ottawa, ON2014 [cited 2014 July 13]. Available from: Http://www.cihr-irsc.gc.ca/e/47870.html.
104. Canadian Institutes of Health Research. Canada's Strategy for Patient-Oriented Research: Improving health outcomes throught evidence-informed care. Ottawa, ON: CIHR; 2011.
105. Mian O, Pong R. Does better access to FPs decrease the likelihood of emergency department use?: Results from the Primary Care Access Survey. Canadian Family Physician. 2012; 58(11): E658-e66. PMID: 23152473
106. Ionescu-Ittu R, McCusker J, Ciampi A, Vadeboncoeur A-M, Roberge D, Larouche D, et al. Continuity of primary care and emergency department utilization among elderly people. Canadian Medical Association journal. 2007; 177(11): 1362-8. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.061615 PMID: 18025427
107. Knight JC, Dowden JJ, Worrall GJ, Gadag VG, Murphy MM. Does higher continuity of family physician care reduce hospitalizations in elderly people with diabetes? Population health management. 2009; 12 (2): 81-6. PMID: 19361251
108. Bell S, Wilson K, Shah TI, Gersher S, Elliott T. Investigating Impacts of Positional Error on Potential Health Care Accessibility. Spatial and Spatio-temporal Epidemiology. 2012; 3(1): 17-29. Epub Feb 23, 2012. doi: 10.1016/j.sste.2012.02.003 PMID: 22469488
109. Galea S, Vlahov D. URBAN HEALTH: Evidence, Challenges, and Directions. Annual Review of Public Health. 2005; 26(1): 341-65.
110. Lofters AK, Moineddin R, Hwang SW, Glazier RH. Low Rates of Cervical Cancer Screening Among Urban Immigrants: A Population-Based Study in Ontario, Canada. Medical Care. 2010; 48(7): 611-8. doi: 10.1097/MLR.0b013e3181d6886f PMID: 20548258
111. Fotso J-C, Ezeh A, Madise N, Ziraba A, Ogollah R. What does Access to Maternal Care Mean Among the Urban Poor? Factors Associated with Use of Appropriate Maternal Health Services in the Slum Settlements of Nairobi, Kenya. Maternal and Child Health Journal. 2009; 13(1): 130-7. doi: 10.1007/s10995-008-0326-4 PMID: 18297380