From text to geographic coordinates: The current state of geocoding

URISA Journal

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 33-46

  Goldberg, Daniel W ^a   Wilson, John P ^a   Knoblock, Craig A ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 34548136250     PISSN: 10458077     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Arbia, G., D. Griffith, and R. Haining. 1998. Error propagation modeling in raster GIS: overlay operations. Int. Journal of Geographical Information Science 12(2): 145-67.
2. Armstrong, M. P., G. Rushton, and D. L. Zimmerman. 1999. Geographically masking health data to preserve confidentiality. Statistics in Medicine 18(5): 497-525.
3. Bakshi, R., C. A. Knoblock, and S. Thakkar. 2004. Exploiting online sources to accurately geocode addresses. In D. Pfoser, I. F. Cruz, and M. Ronthaler, eds., ACM-GIS '04: Proceedings of the 12th ACM International Symposium on Advances in Geographic Information Systems, Washington D.C., November 2004, 194-203.
4. Beal, J. R. 2003. Contextual geolocation, a specialized application for improving indoor location awareness in wireless local area networks. In T. Gibbons, ed., MICS2003: The 36th Annual Midwest Instruction and Computing Symposium, Duluth, Minnesota, April 2003.
5. Block, R. 1995. Geocoding of crime incidents using the 1990 TIGER file: the Chicago example. In C. R. Block, M. Dabdoub, and S. Fregly, eds., Crime analysis through computer mapping. Washington, D.C.: Police Executive Research Forum, 15.
6. Bonner, M. R., D. Han, J. Nie, P. Rogerson, J. E. Venal, and J. L. Freudenheim. 2003. Positional accuracy of geocoded addresses in epidemiologic research. Epidemiology 14(4): 408-11.
7. Boscoe, F. P., C. L. Kielb, M. J. Schymura, and T. M. Bolani. 2002. Assessing and improving census track completeness. Journal of Registry Management 29(4): 117-20.
8. Boscoe, F. P., M. H. Ward, and P. Reynolds. 2004. Current practices in spatial analysis of cancer data: data characteristics and data sources for geographic studies of cancer. Int. Journal of Health Geographies 3(28).
9. Boulos, M. N. K. 2004. Towards evidence-based, GIS-driven national spatial health information infrastructure and surveillance services in the United Kingdom. Int. Journal of Health Geographies 3(1).
10. Brody, J. G., D. J. Vorhees, S. J. Melly, S. R. Swedis, P. J. Drivas, and R. A. Rudel. 2002. Using GIS and historical records to reconstruct residential exposure to large-scale pesticide application. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology 12(1): 64-80.
11. Cayo, M. R., and T. O. Talbot. 2003. Positional error in automated geocoding of residential addresses. Int. Journal of Health Geographics 2(10).
12. Chen, C.-C., C. A. Knoblock, C. Shahabi, and S. Thakkar. 2003. Building finder: a system to automatically annotate buildings in satellite imagery. In P. Agouris, ed., NG21'03: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Next Generation Geospatial Information, Cambridge, MA, October 2003.
13. Chen, C.-C., C. A. Knoblock, C. Shahabi, S. Thakkar, and Y.-Y. Chiang. 2004. Automatically and accurately conflating orthoimagery and street maps. In D. Pfoser, I. F. Cruz, and M. Ronthaler, eds., ACMGIS '04: Proceedings of the 12th ACM International Symposium on Advances in Geographic Information Systems, Washington D.C., November 2004, 47-56.
14. Christen, P., and T. Churches. 2005. A probabilistic reduplication, record linkage and geocoding system. In Proceedings of the Australian Research Council Health Data Mining Workshop (HDM05), Canberra, AU, April 2005. In press, acrc.unisa.edu.au/groups/healthhdw2005Christen.pdf.
15. Christen, P., T. Churches, and A. Willmore. 2004. A probabilistic geocoding system based on a national address file. Australasian Data Mining Conference, Cairns, AU, December 2004. http://datamining.anu.edu.au/publications/2004/aus-dm2004.pdf.
16. Chung, K., D.-H. Yang, and R. Bell. 2004. Health and GIS: toward spatial statistical analyses. Journal of Medical Systems 28(4): 349-60.
17. Churches, T., P. Christen, K. Lim, and J. X. Zhu. 2002. Preparation of name and address data for record linkage using hidden Markov models. Medical Informatics and Decision Making 2(9). http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1472-6947-2-9.pdf.
18. Collins, S. E., R. P. Haining, I. R. Bowns, D. J. Crofts, T. S. Williams, A. S. Rigby, and D. M. Hall. 1998. Errors in postcode to enumeration district mapping and their effect on small area analyses of health data. Journal of Public Health Medicine 20(3): 325-30.
19. Cressie, N., and J. Kornak. 2003. Spatial statistics in the presence of location error with an application to remote sensing of the environment. Statistical Science 18(4): 436-56.
20. Croner, C. M. 2003. Public health GIS and the Internet. Annual Review of Public Health 24: 57-82.
21. Davis Jr., C. A. 1993. Address base creation using raster/vector integration. Proceedings of the URISA 1993 Annual Conference, Atlanta, GA, 45-54.
22. Davis Jr., C. A., F. T. Fonseca, and K. A. De Vasconcelos Borges. 2003. A flexible addressing system for approximate geocoding, GeoInfo 2003: Proceedings of the Fifth Brazilian Symposium on GeoInformatics, Campos do Jordão, São Paulo, Brazil, October 2003.
23. Dearwent, S. M., R. R. Jacobs, and J. B. Halbert. 2001. Locational uncertainty in georeferencing public health datasets. Journal of Exposure Analysis Environmental Epidemiology 11(4): 329-34.
24. Diez-Roux, A. V., S. S. Merkin, D. Arnett, L. Chambless, M. Massing, F.J. Nieto, P. Sorlie, M. Szklo, H. A. Tyroler, and R. L. Watson. 2001. Neighborhood of residence and incidence of coronary heart disease. New England Journal of Medicine 345(2): 99-106.
25. Drummond, W. J. 1995. Address matching: GIS technology for mapping human activity patterns. Journal of the American Planning Association 61 (2): 240-51.
26. Ducker, K. J. 1974. Urban geocoding. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 64(2): 318-25.
27. Durr, P. A., and A. E. A. Froggatt. 2002. How best to georeference farms? A case study from Cornwall, England. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 56: 51-62.
28. Eichelberger, P. 1993. The importance of addresses: the locus of GIS. Proceedings of the URISA 1993 Annual Conference, Atlanta, GA, 212-13.
29. Fonda-Bonardi, P. 1994. House numbering systems in Los Angeles. Proceedings of the GIS/LIS '94 Annual Conference and Exposition, Phoenix, AZ, October 1994, 322-31.
30. Frew, J., M. Freeston, N. Freitas, L. L. Hill, G. Janee, K. Lovette, R. Nideffer, T. R. Smith, and Q. Zheng. 1998. The Alexandria digital library architecture. In C. Nikalaou and C. Stephanidis, eds., ECDL '98: Proceedings of the 2nd European Conference on Research and Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries, Heraklion, Crete, Greece, September 1998. Lecture notes in computer science, Vol. 1513. London, UK: Springer, 61-73.
31. Fulcomer, M. C., M. M. Bastardi, H. Raza, M. Duffy, E. Dufficy, and M. M. Sass. 1998. Assessing the accuracy of geocoding using address data from birth certificates: New Jersey, 1989 to 1996. In R. C. Williams, M. M. Howie, C. V. Lee, and W. D. Henriques, eds., Proceedings of the 1998 Geographic Information Systems in Public Health Conference, San Diego, CA, August 1998, 547-60. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/GIS/conference98/ proceedings/pdf/gisbook.pdf.
32. Gabrosek, J., and N. Cressie. 2002. The effect on attribute prediction on location uncertainty in spatial data. Geographical Analysis 34: 262-85.
33. Gaffney, S. H., F. C. Curriero, P. T. Strickland, G. E. Glass, K. J. Helzlsouer, and P. N. Breysse. 2005. Influence of geographic location in modeling blood pesticide levels in a community surrounding a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Superfund Site. Environmental Health Perspectives 113(12): 1712-16.
34. Gatrell, A. C. 1989. On the spatial representation and accuracy of address-based data in the United Kingdom. Int. Journal of Geographical Information Systems 3(4): 335-48.
35. Geronimus, A. T, and J. Bound. 1998. Use of census-based aggregate variables to proxy for socioeconomic group: evidence from national samples. American Journal of Epidemiology 148(5): 475-86.
36. Geronimus, A. T., and J. Bound. 1999a. Re: Use of census-based aggregate variables to proxy for socioeconomic group: evidence from national samples. American Journal of Epidemiology 150(8): 894-6. Letter.
37. Geronimus, A. T., and J. Bound. 1999b. Re: Use of census-based aggregate variables to proxy for socioeconomic group: evidence from national samples. American Journal of Epidemiology 150(9): 997-9. Letter.
38. Geronimus, A. T., J. Bound, and L. J. Neidert. 1995. On the validity of using census geocode characteristics to proxy individual socioeconomic characteristics. Technical Working Paper 189. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
39. Gottesfeld Brown, L. 1992. A survey of image registration techniques. ACM Computing Surveys 24(4): 325-76.
40. Gregorio, D. I., E. Cromley, R. Mrozinski, and S. J. Walsh. 1999. Subject loss in spatial analysis of breast cancer. Health & Place 5(2): 173-7.
41. Gregorio, D. I., L. M. DeChello, H. Samociuk, and M. Kulldorff. 2005. Lumping or splitting: seeking the preferred areal unit for health geography studies. Int. Journal of Health Geographics 4(6).
42. Griffin, D. H., J. M. Pausche, E. B. Rivers, A. L. Tillman, and J. B. Treat. 1990. Improving the coverage of addresses in the 1990 census: preliminary results. Proceedings of the American Statistical Association Survey Research Methods Section, Anaheim, CA, August 1990, 541-6. http://www.amstat.org/sections/srms/Proceedings/papers/1990+091.pdf.
43. Han, D., P. A. Rogerson, M. R. Bonner, J. Nie, J. E. Vena, P. Muti, M. Trevisan, and J. L. Freudenheim. 2005. Assessing spatio-temporal variability of risk surfaces using residential history data in a case control study of breast cancer. Int. Journal of Health Geographies 4(9).
44. Haspel, M., and H. G. Knotts. 2005. Location, location, location: precinct placement and the costs of voting. The Journal of Politics 67(2): 560-73.
45. Higgs, G., and D. J. Martin. 1995. The address data dilemma part 1: is the introduction of address-point the key to every door in Britain? Mapping Awareness 8, 26-28.
46. Higgs, G., and W. Richards. 2002. The use of geographical information systems in examining variations in sociodemographic profiles of dental practice catchments: a case study of a Swansea practice. Primary Dental Care 9(2): 63-69.
47. Hill, L. L. 2000. Core elements of digital gazetteers: placenames, categories, and footprints. In J. L. Borbinha and T. Baker, eds., ECDL'00: research and advanced technology for digital libraries. 4th European Conference, Lisbon, Portugal, September 2000. Lecture notes in computer science, Vol. 1923. London, UK: Springer, 280-90.
48. Hill, L. L., J. Frew, and Q. Zheng. 1999. Geographic names: the implementation of a gazetteer in a georeferenced digital library. D-Lib Magazine 5(1). http://www.dlib.org/dlib/january99/hill/01hill.html.
49. Hill, L. L., and Q. Zheng. 1999. Indirect geospatial referencing through place names in the digital library: Alexandria digital library experience with developing and implementing gazetteers. Proceedings of the 62nd Annual Meeting of the American Society for Information Science, Washington, D.C., October-November, 1999, 57-69.
50. Hurley, S. E., T. M. Saunders, R. Nivas, A. Hertz, and P. Reynolds. 2003. Post office box addresses: a challenge for geographic information system-based studies. Epidemiology 14(4): 386-91.
51. Hutchinson, M., and B. Veenendall. 2005a. Towards a framework for intelligent geocoding. In SSC 2005 spatial intelligence, innovation and praxis. The National Biennial Conference of the Spatial Sciences Institute, Melbourne, AU, September 2005.
52. Hutchinson, M., and B. Veenendall. 2005b. Towards using intelligence to move from geocoding to geolocating. Proceedings of the 7th Annual URISA GIS in Addressing Conference, Austin, TX, August 2005.
53. Jaro, M. 1984. Record linkage research and the calibration of record linkage algorithms. Statistical Research Division Report Series SRD Report No. Census/SRD/RR-84/27. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/srd/papers/pdf/rr84-27.pdf.
54. Johnson, S. D. 1998a. Address matching with commercial spatial data: part 1. Business Geographies, March, 24-32.
55. Johnson, S. D. 1998b. Address matching with stand-alone geocoding engines: part 2. Business Geographies, April, 30-36.
56. Karimi, H. A., M. Durcik, and W. Rasdorf. 2004. Evaluation of uncertainties associated with geocoding techniques. Journal of Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering 19(3): 170-85.
57. Kennedy, T. C., J. G. Brody, and J. N. Gardner. 2003. Modeling historical environmental exposures using GIS: implications for disease surveillance. Proceedings of the 2003 ESRI Health GIS Conference, Arlington, Virginia, May 2003. http://gis.esri.com/library/userconf/ health03/papers/pap3020/p3020.htm.
58. Krieger, N. 1992. Overcoming the absence of socioeconomic data in medical records: validation and application of a census-based methodology. American Journal of Public Health 82(5): 703-10.
59. Krieger, N. 2003. Place, space, and health: GIS and epidemiology. Epidemiology 14(4): 384-85.
60. Krieger, N., J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, D. H. Rehkopf, and S. V. Subramanian. 2005. Painting a truer picture of U.S. socioeconomic and racial/ethnic health inequalities: the Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project. American Journal of Public Health 95(2): 312-23.
61. Krieger, N., J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, M.-J. Soobader, S. V. Subramanian, and R. Carson. 2002a. Geocoding and monitoring of U.S. socioeconomic inequalities in mortality and cancer incidence: does the choice of area-based measure and geographic level matter? American Journal of Epidemiology 156(5): 471-82.
62. Krieger, N., and D. Gordon. 1999. Re: Use of census-based aggregate variables to proxy for socioeconomic group: evidence from national samples. American Journal of Epidemiology 150(8): 894-6.
63. Krieger, N., P. Waterman, J. T. Chen, M.-J. Soobader, S. V. Subramanian, and R. Carson. 2002b. Zip code caveat: bias due to spatiotemporal mismatches between zip codes and U.S. census-defined areas: The Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project. American Journal of Public Health 92(7): 1100-2.
64. Krieger, N., P. D. Waterman, J. T. Chen, M.-J. Soobader, and S. V. Subramanian. 2003. Monitoring socioeconomic inequalities in sexually transmitted infections, tuberculosis, and violence: geocoding and choice of area-based socioeconomic measures. Public Health Reports 118(3): 240-60.
65. Kwok, R. K., and B. C. Yankaskas. 2001. The use of census data for determining race and education as SES indicators: a validation study. Annals of Epidemiology 11(3): 171-7.
66. Laender, A. H. F., K. A. V. Borges, J. C. P. Carvalhol C. B. Medeiros, A. S. da Silva, and C. A. Davis, Jr. 2005. Integrating Web data and geographic knowledge into spatial databases. In Y. Manalopoulos and A. N. Papadapoulos, eds., Spatial databases: technologies, techniques and trends, Chap. 2. (Hershey, PA: Idea Group Inc.), 23-47.
67. Lee, J. 2004. 3D GIS for geo-coding human activity in microscale urban environments. In M. J. Egenhofer, C. Freksa, and H. J. Miller, eds., Geographic information science. Third International Conference, GIScience 2004, College Park, MD, October 2004, 162-78.
68. Levesque, M. 2003. West Virginia Statewide Addressing and Mapping Project. Proceedings of the Fifth Annual URISA Street Smart and Address Savvy Conference, Providence, RI, August 2003. http://www.urisa.org/ Street Smart Conference/2003/LevesqueM.pdf.
69. Levine, N., and K. E. Kim. 1998. The spatial location of motor vehicle accidents: a methodology for geocoding intersections. Computers, Environment, and Urban Systems 22(6): 557-76.
70. Lind, M. 2001. Developing a system of public addresses as a language for location dependent information. In Proceedings of the 2001 URISA Annual Conference, Long Beach, CA, October 2001. http://www.adresseprojekt.dk/ files/Develop-PublicAddress urisa2001e.pdf.
71. Lixin, Y. 1996. Development and evaluation of a framework for assessing the efficiency and accuracy of street address geocoding strategies. Ph.D. thesis, University at Albany, State University of New York, Rockefeller College of Public Affairs and Policy, 1996.
72. Locative Technologies. 2006. Geocoder.us: a free U.S. geocoder. http://geocoder.us.
73. Lockyer, B. Office of the Attorney General of the State of California Legal Opinion 04-1105. http://ag.ca.gov/opinions/pdfs/04-1105.pdf.
74. Martin, D. J. 1998. Optimizing census geography: the separation of collection and output geographies. Int. Journal of Geographical Information Science 12(7): 673-85.
75. Martin, D. J., and G. Higgs. 1996. Georeferencing people and places: a comparison of detailed datasets. In D. Parker, ed., Innovations in GIS 3: selected papers from the Third National Conference on GIS Research UK (Gisruk), Canterbury, UK. London, UK: Taylor and Francis, 37-47.
76. Martin, D. J. 1999. Spatial representation: the social scientist's perspective. In P. A. Longley, M. F. Goodchild, D. J. Maguire, and D. W. Rhind, eds., Geographical information systems, Vol. 1, 2nd Ed. New York: Wiley, 6: 71-80.
77. McElroy, J. A., P. L. Remington, A. Trentham-Dietz, S. A. Robert, and P. A. Newcomb. 2003. Geocoding addresses from a large population-based study: lessons learned. Epidemiology 14(4): 399-407.
78. Murphy, J., and R. Armitage. 2005. Merging the modeled and working address database: a question of dynamics and data quality. Proceedings of GIS Ireland 2005, Dublin, IE, October 2005.
79. Nicoara, G. 2005. Exploring the geocoding process: a municipal case study using crime data. Master's thesis, University of Texas at Dallas, Dallas, TX.
80. Nuckols, J. R., M. H. Ward, and L. Jarup. 2004. Using geographic information systems for exposure assessment in environmental epidemiology studies. Environmental Health Perspectives 112(9): 1007-15.
81. Oliver, M. N., K. A. Matthews, M. Siadaty, F. R. Hauck, and L. W. Pickle. 2005. Geographic bias related to geocoding in epidemiologic studies. Int. Journal of Health Geographics 4(29).
82. Olligschlaeger, A. M. 1998. Artificial neural networks and crime mapping. In D. Weisburd and T. McEwen, eds., Crime mapping and crime prevention. Crime prevention studies, Vol. 8. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press, 313-47.
83. Openshaw, S. 1989. Learning to live with errors in spatial databases. In M. F. Goodchild and S. Gopal, eds., Accuracy of spatial databases. Bristol, PA: Taylor and Francis, 23: 263-76.
84. Oppong, J. R. 1999. Data problems in GIS and health. Proceedings of Health and Environment Workshop 4: Health Research Methods and Data, Turku, Finland, July 1999. http://geog.queensu.ca/hande/healthandenvir/ FinlandWorkshop_Papers/OPPONG.DOC.
85. Ordnance Survey. 2006. ADDRESS-POINT. Ordnance Survey's map dataset of all postal addresses in Great Britain. http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/ oswebsite/products/address-point.
86. O'Reagan, R. T., and A. Saalfeld. 1987. Geocoding theory and practice at the Bureau of the Census. Statistical Research Report Census/SRD/RR-87/ 29. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau.
87. Paull, D. 2003. A geocoded national address file for Australia: the G-NAF what, why, who and when? http://www.addressonline.com.au/ addressonline/home/GNAF_What_Why_Who_When.pdf.
88. Pohl, C., and J. L. Van Genderen. 1998. Review article: multisensor image fusion. In Remote sensing: concepts, methods and applications. Int. Journal of Remote Sensing 19(5): 823-54.
89. Ratcliffe, J. H. 2001. On the accuracy ofTIGER-type geocoded address data in relation to cadastral and census areal units. Int. Journal of Geographical Information Science 15(5): 473-85.
90. Ratcliffe, J. H. 2004. Geocoding crime and a first estimate of a minimum acceptable hit rate. Int. Journal of Geographical Information Science 18(l): 61-72.
91. Rose, K. M., J. L. Wood, S. Knowles, R. A. Pollitt, E. A. Whitsel, A. V. Diez-Roux, D. Yoon, and G. Heiss. 2004. Historical measures of social context in life course studies: retrospective linkage of addresses to decennial censuses. Int. Journal of Health Geographics 3(27).
92. Rushton, G., M. Armstrong, J. Gittler, B. Greene, C. Pavlik, M. West, and D. Zimmerman. 2006. Geocoding in cancer research - a review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 30(2): S16-S24.
93. Schootman, M., D. Jeffe, E. Kinman, G. Higgs, and J. Jackson-Thompson. 2004. Evaluating the utility and accuracy of a reverse telephone directory to identify the location of survey respondents. Annals of Epidemiology 15(2): 160-6.
94. Sheehan, T. J., S. T. Gershman, L. MacDougal, R. A. Danley, M. Mroszczyk, A. M. Sorensen, and M. Kulldorff. 2000. Geographic surveillance of breast cancer screening by tracts, towns and zip codes. Journal of Public Health Management Practices 6: 48-57.
95. Smith, G. D., Y. Ben-Shlomo, and C. Hart. 1999. Re: Use of census-based aggregate variables to proxy for socioeconomic group: evidence from national samples. American Journal of Epidemiology 150(9): 996-7.
96. Soobader, M., F. B. LeClere, W. Hadden, and B. Maury. 2001. Using aggregate geographic data to proxy individual socioeconomic status: does size matter? American Journal of Public Health 91(4): 632-6.
97. Stage, D., and N. von Meyer. 2005. An assessment of parcel data in the United States 2005 Survey results. Federal Geographic Data Committee Subcommittee on Cadastral Data Report. http://www.nationalcad.org/ showdocs.asp?docid=170.
98. Stevenson, M. A., J. Wilesmith, J. Ryan, R. Morris, A. Lawson, D. Pfeiffer, and D. Lin. 2000. Descriptive spatial analysis of the epidemic of bovine spongiform encephalopathy in Great Britain to June 1997. The Veterinary Record 147(14): 379-84.
99. Toutin, T. 2004. Review article: Geometric processing of remote sensing images: models, algorithms and methods. Int. Journal of Remote Sensing 25(10): 1893-1924.
100. Tobler, W. 1972. Geocoding theory. In Proceedings of the National Geocoding Conference, Washington D.C. Washington, D.C.: Department of Transportation, IV.1.
101. United Nations Economic Commission. 2005. A functional addressing system for Africa: a discussion paper. http://geoinfo.uneca.org/Docs/Situs Addressing_background_paper-Draft.pdf.
102. U.S. Census Bureau. 2006. Topologically integrated geographic encoding and referencing system. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/geo/www/tiger.
103. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2000. Healthy people 2010: understanding and improving health, 2nd Ed. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. http://www.healthypeople.gov/Document/html/ uih/uih 2.htm.
104. Veregin, H. 1999. Data quality parameters. In P. A. Longley, M. F. Goodchild, D. J. Maguire, and D. W. Rhind, eds., Geographical information systems, 2nd Ed., Vol. 1, Chap. 12. New York, NY: Wiley, 177-89.
105. Vine, M. F., D. Degnan, and C. Hanchette. 1998. Geographic information systems: their use in environmental epidemiologic research. Journal of Environmental Health 61: 7-16.
106. Ward, M. H., J. R. Nuckols, J. Giglierano, M. R. Bonner, C. Wolter, M. Airola, W. Mix, J. S. Colt, and P. Hartge. 2005. Positional accuracy of two methods of geocoding. Epidemiology 16(4): 542-7.
107. Walls, M. D. 2003. Is consistency in address assignment still needed? Proceedings of the Fifth Annual URISA Street Smart and Address Savvy Conference, Providence, RI, August 2003. http://www.urisa.org/ Street_Smart_Conference/2003/WallsM.pdf.
108. Werner, P.A. 1974. National geocoding. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 64(2): 310-7.
109. Wieczorek, J., Q. Guo, and R. J. Hijmans. 2004. The point-radius method for georeferencing locality descriptions and calculating associated uncertainty Int. Journal of Geographical Information Science 18(8): 745-67.
110. Wu, J., T. H. Funk, F. W. Lurmann, and A. M. Winer. 2005. Improving spatial accuracy of roadway networks and geocoded addresses. Transactions in GIS 9(4): 585-601.
111. Yahoo! Inc., 2006, Yahoo! Maps Web Services - Geocoding API. http://developer.yahoo.com/maps/rest/VI/geocode.html.
112. Yang, D.-H., L. M. Bilaver, O. Hayes, and R. Goerge. 2004. Improving geocoding practices: evaluation of geocoding tools. Journal of Medical Systems 28(4): 361-70.