Combining gender, work, and family identities: The cross-over and spill-over of gender norms into young adults' work and family aspirations

Frontiers in Psychology

Volumn 7, Issue NOV, 2016, Pages

  Meeussen, Loes ^a   Veldman, Jenny ^a   Van Laar, Colette ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Family; Gender; Identity compatibility; Identity management; Social norms; Work

Indexed keywords

EID: 85006375364     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16641078     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01781     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. Allen, S., and Hawkins, A. (1999). Maternal gatekeeping: mothers' beliefs and behaviors that inhibit greater father involvement in family work. J. Marriage Fam. 61, 199-212. doi: 10.2307/353894
2. Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E., Bruck, C. S., and Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work to-family conflict: a review and agenda for future research. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 5, 278-308. doi: 10.1037/1076-8998.5.2.278
3. Bakker, A. B., and Demerouti, E. (2013). "The spillover-crossover model, " in New Frontiers in Work and Family Research, eds J. Grzywacs and E. Demerouti (Hove Sussex: Psychology Press), 54-70.
4. Bartley, S. J., Blanton, P. W., and Gilliard, J. L. (2005). Husbands and wives in dual-earner marriages: decision-making, gender role attitudes, division of household labor, and equity. Marriage Fam. Rev. 37, 69-94. doi: 10.1300/J002v37n04_05
5. Belsky, J., and Kelly, J. (1994). The Transition to Parenthood: How a First Child Changes a Marriage: Which Couples Grow Closer or Apart, and Why. New York, NY: Delacorte Press.
6. Bianchi, S. M., Milkie, M. A., Sayer, L. C., and Robinson, J. P. (2000). Is anyone doing the housework? Trends in the gender division of household labor. Soc. Forces 79, 191-228.
7. Biehle, S. N., and Mickelson, K. D. (2012). First-time parents' expectations about the division of childcare and play. J. Fam. Psychol. 26, 36-45. doi: 10.1037/a0026608
8. Botkin, D. R., Weeks, M. N., and Morris, J. E. (2000). Changing marriage role expectations: 1961-1996. Sex Roles 42, 933-942. doi: 10.1023/A:1007006702410
9. Brown, E. R., and Diekman, A. B. (2010). What will I be? Exploring gender differences in near and distant possible selves. Sex Roles 63, 568-579.
10. Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., and Williams, L. J. (2000). Construction and initial validation of a multidimensional measure of work-family conflict. J. Vocat. Behav. 56, 249-276. doi: 10.1006/jvbe.1999.1713
11. Carter, D. A., Simkins, B. J., and Simpson, W. G. (2003). Corporate governance, board diversity, and firm value. Financ. Rev. 38, 33-53. doi: 10.1111/1540-6288.00034
12. Corcoran, K., Crucius, J., and Mussweiler, T. (2011). "Social comparison: motives, standards, and mechanisms, " in Theories in Social Psychology, ed. D. Chadee (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell), 119-139.
13. Croft, A., Schmader, T., and Block, K. (2015). An under-examined inequality: cultural and psychological barriers to men's engagement with communal roles. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 19, 343-370. doi: 10.1177/1088868314564789
14. Croft, A., Schmader, T., Block, K., and Baron, A. S. (2014). The second shift reflected in the second generation: do parents' gender roles at home predict children's aspirations? Psychol. Sci. 25, 1418-1428. doi: 10.1177/0956797614533968
15. Crompton, R., and Lyonette, C. (2006). Work-life 'balance' in Europe. Acta Sociol. 49, 379-393. doi: 10.1007/s00264-015-2946-9
16. Davis, S. N., and Greenstein, T. N. (2009). Gender ideology: components, predictors, and consequences. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 35, 87-105. doi: 10.1146/annurev-soc-070308-115920
17. Diekman, A. B., Clark, E. K., Johnston, A. M., Brown, E. R., and Steinberg, M. (2011). Malleability in communal goals and beliefs influences attraction to stem careers: evidence for a goal congruity perspective. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 101, 902-918. doi: 10.1037/a0025199
18. Dormann, C. F., Elith, J., Bacher, S., Buchmann, C., Carl, G., Carré, G., et al. (2013). Collinearity: a review of methods to deal with it and a simulation study evaluating their performance. Ecography 36, 27-46. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0587.2012.07348.x
19. Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Social-role Interpretation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
20. Eagly, A. H., and Diekman, A. B. (2003). "The malleability of sex differences in response to changing social roles, " in A Psychology of Human Strengths, eds L. G. Aspinwall and U. M. Staudinger (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 103-115.
21. Eagly, A. H., and Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychol. Rev. 109, 573-598. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573
22. Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., and Diekman, A. (2000). "Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: a current appraisal, " in The Developmental Social Psychology of Gender, eds T. Eckes and H. M. Trautner (New York, NY: Psychology Press), 123-174.
23. Eccles, J. S. (1994). Understanding women's educational and occupational choices: Applying the Eccles et al. Model of achievement-related choices. Psychol. Women Q. 18, 585-609. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb01049.x
24. Elder, G. H. (1998). The life course as developmental theory. Child Dev. 69, 1-12. doi: 10.2307/1132065
25. England, P. (2010). The gender revolution: uneven and stalled. Gen. Soc. 24, 149-166. doi: 10.1111/cars.12076
26. England, P. (2011). Missing the big picture and making much ado about almost nothing: recent scholarship on gender and household work. J. Fam. Theory Rev. 3, 23-26. doi: 10.1111/j.1756-2589.2010.00077.x
27. Etaugh, C., and Folger, D. (1998). Perceptions of parents whose work and parenting behaviors deviate from role expectations. Sex Roles 39, 215-223. doi: 10.1023/A:1018850404838
28. European Commission (2014). Gender Equality in the Workforce: Reconciling Work, Private and Family Life in Europe. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/files/documents/140502_gender_equality_workforce:ssr_en.pdf
29. European Institute for Gender Equality (2015). Gender Equality Index 2015-Measuring Gender Equality in the European Union 2005-2012 (Country profiles). Available at: http://eige.europa.eu/gender-statistics/gender-equality-index
30. Fahlén, S. (2014). Does gender matter? Policies, norms and the gender gap in work-to-home and home-to-work conflict across Europe. Community Work Fam. 17, 371-391. doi: 10.1080/13668803.2014.899486
31. Gerson, K. (2010). The Unfinished Revolution: How a New Generation is Reshaping Family, Work, and Gender in America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
32. Gill, M. J. (2004). When information does not deter stereotyping: prescriptive stereotyping can foster bias under conditions that deter descriptive stereotyping. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 40, 619-632. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2003.12.001
33. Goldberg, W. A., Kelly, E., Matthews, N. L., Kang, H., Li, W., and Sumaroka, M. (2012). The more things change, the more they stay the same: gender, culture, and college students' views about work and family. J. Soc. Issues 68, 814-837. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2012.01777.x
34. Greenwood, D. N., and Lippman, J. R. (2009). "Gender and media: content, uses, and impact, " in Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology, Vol. 2, eds J. C. Chrisler and D. R. McCreary (New York, NY: Springer), 643-669.
35. Hakanen, J. J., Peeters, M. C., and Perhoniemi, R. (2011). Enrichment processes and gain spirals at work and at home: A 3-year cross-lagged panel study. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 84, 8-30. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8325.2010.02014.x
36. Hays, S. (2003). Flat Broke with Children: Women in the Age of Welfare. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
37. Heider, F. (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
38. Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: how gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder. J. Soc. issues 57, 657-674. doi: 10.1111/0022-4537.00234
39. Heilman, M. E. (2012). Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Res. Organ. Behav. 32, 113-135. doi: 10.1037/a0036734
40. Herring, C. (2009). Does diversity pay?: race, gender, and the business case for diversity. Am. Sociol. Rev. 74, 208-224. doi: 10.1177/000312240907400203
41. Hochschild, A., and Machung, A. (2012). The Second Shift: Working Families and the Revolution at Home. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
42. Hodges, A. J., and Park, B. (2013). Oppositional identities: dissimilarities in how women and men experience parent versus professional roles. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 105, 193-216. doi: 10.1037/a0032681
43. Hoffnung, M. (2004). Wanting it all: career, marriage, and motherhood during college-educated women's 20s. Sex Roles 50, 711-723. doi: 10.1023/B:SERS.0000027572.57049.ff
44. Hoffnung, M., and Williams, M. A. (2013). Balancing act: career and family during college-educated women's 30s. Sex Roles 68, 321-334. doi: 10.1007/s11199-012-0248-x
45. Hogben, M., and Waterman, C. K. (1997). Are all of your students represented in their textbooks? A content analysis of coverage of diversity issues in introductory psychology textbooks. Teach. Psychol. 24, 95-100.
46. Jacob, J. (2008). Work, family, and individual factors associated with mothers attaining their preferred work situations. Fam. Consum. Sci. Res. J. 36, 208-228. doi: 10.1177/1077727X07312820
47. James, L., Demaree, R., and Wolf, G. (1984). Estimating within-group interrater reliability with and without response bias. J. Appl. Psychol. 69, 85-98. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.69.1.85
48. Johnston, D. D., and Swanson, D. H. (2006). Constructing the 'good mother': the experience of mothering ideologies by work status. Sex Roles 54, 509-519. doi: 10.1007/s11199-006-9021-3
49. Laflamme, D., Pomerleau, A., and Malcuit, G. (2002). A comparison of fathers' and mothers' involvement in childcare and stimulation behaviors during free-play with their infants at 9 and 15 months. Sex Roles 47, 507-518. doi: 10.1023/A:1022069720776
50. LeBreton, J. M., and Senter, J. L. (2008). Answers to twenty questions about interrater reliability and interrater agreement. Organ. Res. Methods 11, 815-852. doi: 10.1177/1094428106296642
51. Liss, M., Schiffrin, H. H., and Rizzo, K. M. (2013). Maternal guilt and shame: the role of self-discrepancy and fear of negative evaluation. J. Child Fam. Stud. 22, 1112-1119. doi: 10.1007/s10826-012-9673-2
52. Major, B. (1994). "From social inequality to personal entitlement: the role of social comparisons, legitimacy appraisals, and group membership, " in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 26, ed. M. P. Zanna (San Diego, CA: Academic Press), 293-355.
53. Mathews, T. J., and Hamilton, B. E. (2009). Delayed childbearing: more women are having their first child later in life. NCHS Data Brief 21, 1-8.
54. Nomaguchi, K. M., and Milkie, M. A. (2003). Costs and rewards of children: the effects of becoming a parent on adults' lives. J. Marriage Fam. 65, 356-374. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3737.2003.00356.x
55. O'Brien, L. T., and Major, B. (2009). "Group status and feelings of personal entitlement: the roles of social comparison and system-justifying beliefs, " in Social and Psychological Bases of Ideology and System Justification: Series in Political Psychology, eds J. T. Jost, C. K. Aaron, and H. Thorisdottir (New York, NY: Oxford University Press), 427-443.
56. Oishi, S., and Graham, J. (2010). Social ecology: lost and found in psychological science. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 5, 356-377. doi: 10.1177/1745691610374588
57. Oyserman, D., and James, L. (2011). "Possible identities, " in Handbook of Identity Theory and Research, Vol. 1, eds S. J. Schwartz, K. Luyckx, and V. L. Vignoles (New York, NY: Springer), 117-145.
58. Pleck, J. H., and Masciadrelli, B. P. (2004). "Paternal involvement by US residential fathers: levels, sources, and consequences, " in The Role of the Father in Child Development, 4th Edn, ed. M. E. Lamb (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons), 222-271.
59. Prentice, D. A., and Carranza, E. (2002). What women and men should be, shouldn't be, are allowed to be, and don't have to be: the contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychol. Women Q. 26, 269-281. doi: 10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066
60. Riggs, J. M. (1997). Mandates for mothers and fathers: perceptions of breadwinners and care givers. Sex Roles 37, 565-580. doi: 10.1023/A:1025611119822
61. Rindfuss, R. R. (1991). The young adult years: diversity, structural change, and fertility. Demography 28, 493-512. doi: 10.2307/2061419
62. Rotkirch, A., and Janhunen, K. (2010). Maternal guilt. Evol. Psychol. 8, 90-106. doi: 10.1177/147470491000800108
63. Rudman, L. A., and Mescher, K. (2013). Penalizing men who request a family leave: is flexibility stigma a femininity stigma? J. Soc. Issues 69, 322-340. doi: 10.1111/josi.12017
64. Sidanius, J., and Pratto, F. (1999). Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
65. Thurer, S. (1995). The Myths of Motherhood: How Culture Reinvents the Good Mother. New York, NY: Penguin.
66. United Nations Development Programme (2014). Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building Resilience. Available at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/2014-report/download
67. Van Steenbergen, E. F., and Ellemers, N. (2009). Is managing the work-family interface worthwhile? Benefits for employee health and performance. J. Organ. Behav. 30, 617-642. doi: 10.1002/job.569
68. Van Steenbergen, E. F., Ellemers, N., and Mooijaart, A. (2007). How work and family can facilitate each other: distinct types of work-family facilitation and outcomes for women and men. J. Occup. Health Psychol. 12, 279-300. doi: 10.1037/1076-8998.12.3.279
69. Weisgram, E. S., Bigler, R. S., and Liben, L. S. (2010). Gender, values, and occupational interests among children, adolescents, and adults. Child Dev. 81, 778-796. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01433.x
70. Wood, W., and Eagly, A. H. (2009). "Gender identity, " in Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior, eds M. R. Leary and R. H. Hoyle (New York, NY: Guilford Press), 109-125.
71. World Economic Forum (2014). The Global Gender Gap Report 2014. Available at: http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2014/