The influence of multiple oppressions on women of color's experiences with insidious trauma

Journal of Counseling Psychology

Volumn 63, Issue 6, 2016, Pages 656-667

  Watson, Laurel B ^a   DeBlaere, Cirleen ^b   Langrehr, Kimberly J ^a   Zelaya, David G ^b   Flores, Mirella J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI KANSAS CITY   (United States)

^b GEORGIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Discrimination; PTSD; Racism; Self esteem; Sexism

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ASIAN AMERICAN; ETHNOLOGY; FEMALE; HISPANIC; HUMAN; MIDDLE AGED; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOLOGY; RACISM; SELF CONCEPT; SEXISM; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AFRICAN AMERICANS; ASIAN AMERICANS; FEMALE; HISPANIC AMERICANS; HUMANS; MIDDLE AGED; RACISM; SELF CONCEPT; SEXISM; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84996605280     PISSN: 00220167     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/cou0000165     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. New York, NY: Perseus Books.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
3. American Psychological Association. (2007). Guidelines for psychological practice with girls and women. American Psychologist, 62, 949-979. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.9.949
4. Balsam, K. F., Molina, Y., Beadnell, B., Simoni, J., & Walters, K. (2011). Measuring multiple minority stress: The LGBT People of Color Micro-aggressions Scale. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 163-174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0023244
5. Berg, S. (2006). Everyday sexism and posttraumatic stress disorder in women: A correlational study. Violence Against Women, 12, 970-988. doi:10.1177/1077801206293082
6. Blanchard, E. B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T. C., & Forneris, C. A. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behavior Research and Therapy, 34, 669-673. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(96)00033-2
7. Bowleg, L. (2008). When Black + lesbian + woman &ne Black lesbian woman: The methodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative intersectionality research. Sex Roles, 59, 312-325. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9400-z
8. Brown, L. S. (2013). Treating the effects of psychological trauma. In G. Koocher, J. C. Norcross, & B. Greene (Eds.), Psychologists' desk reference (pp. 290-293). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med: psych/9780199845491.003.0060
9. Buchanan, N. T. (2005). Incorporating race and gender in sexual harassment research: The Racialized Sexual Harassment Scale (RSHS). Symposium presented at the meeting of the International Coalition Against Sexual Harassment, Philadelphia, PA.
10. Buchanan, N. T., Bergman, M. E., Bruce, T. A., Woods, K. C., & Lichty, L. L. (2009). Unique and joint effects of sexual and racial harassment on college students' well-being. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 31, 267-285. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01973530903058532
11. Carr, E. R., Szymanski, D. M., Taha, F., West, L. M., & Kaslow, N. J. (2014). Understanding the link between multiple oppressions and depression among African American women: The role of internalization. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38, 233-245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684313499900
12. Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. The Counseling Psychologist, 35, 13-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011000006292033
13. Cassidy, C., O'Connor, R. C., Howe, C., & Warden, D. (2004). Perceived discrimination and psychological distress: The role of personal and ethnic self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 329-339. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.51.3.329
14. Cheng, H. L., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2015). Racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and alcohol problems in a longitudinal study of Hispanic/Latino college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62, 38-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cou0000052
15. Cislo, A. M. (2008). Ethnic identity and self-esteem: Contrasting Cuban and Nicaraguan young adults. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 30, 230-250. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0739986308315297
16. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
17. Cole, E. R. (2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychology, 64, 170-180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014564
18. Comas-Díaz, L. (1994). An integrative approach. In L. Comas-Díaz & B. Greene (Eds.), Women of color (pp. 287-319). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
19. DeBlaere, C., Brewster, M. E., Bertsch, K. N., DeCarlo, A. L., Kegel, K. A., & Presseau, C. D. (2014). The protective power of collective action for sexual minority women of color: An investigation of multiple discrimination experiences and psychological distress. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38, 20-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684313493252
20. DeBlaere, C., & Moradi, B. (2008). Structures of the schedules of racist and sexist events: Confirmatory factor analyses of African American women's responses. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 83-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00409.x
21. DeBlaere, C., Watson, L. B., & Langrehr, K. J. (in press). Social justice in a multicultural context. In C. B. Travis & J. W. White (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Women.
22. Fairchild, K., & Rudman, L. A. (2008). Everyday stranger harassment and women's objectification. Social Justice Research, 21, 338-357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211-008-0073-0
23. Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS Statistics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
24. Fischer, A. R., & Bolton Holz, K. (2007). Perceived discrimination and women's psychological distress: The roles of collective and personal self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 154-164. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.2.154
25. Flores, E., Tschann, J. M., Dimas, J. M., Pasch, L. A., & de Groat, C. L. (2010). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and health risk behaviors among Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 264-273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0020026
26. Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173-206. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
27. Guadagnoli, E., & Velicer, W. F. (1988). Relation of sample size to the stability of component patterns. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 265-275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.265
28. Hayes, A. H. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
29. Huynh, Q. L., Devos, T., & Goldberg, R. (2014). The role of ethnic and national identifications in perceived discrimination for Asian Americans: Toward a better understanding of the buffering effect of group identification on psychological distress. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 5, 161-171. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0031601
30. Kira, I. A., Omidy, A. Z., Fawzi, M., Rice, K. G., Fawzi, M., Lewandowski, L., & Bujold-Burgeaud, M. (2015). Are the negative mental health effects of gender discrimination (GD) salient across cultures?: Does self-esteem mediate these effects: GD as a continuous traumatic stress and the pathways to its negative dynamics? Psychology, 6, 93-116.
31. Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
32. Klonoff, E. A., & Landrine, H. (1995). The schedule of sexist events. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 439-470. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1995.tb00086.x
33. Kozee, H. B., Tylka, T. L., Augustus-Horvath, C. L., & Denchik, A. (2007). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 176189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00351.x
34. Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Corral, I., Fernandez, S., & Roesch, S. (2006). Conceptualizing and measuring ethnic discrimination in health research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 79-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10865-005-9029-0
35. Lang, A. J., & Stein, M. B. (2005). An abbreviated PTSD checklist for use as a screening instrument in primary care. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 585-594. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.04.005
36. Lowe, S. M., Okubo, Y., & Reilly, M. F. (2012). A qualitative inquiry into racism, trauma, and coping: Implications for supporting victims of racism. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43, 190-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0026501
37. Miles-McLean, H., Liss, M., Erchull, M. J., Robertson, C. M., Hagerman, C., Gnoleba, M. A., & Papp, L. J. (2015). 'Stop looking at me!': Interpersonal sexual objectification as a source of insidious trauma. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 39, 363-374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684314561018
38. Mooney, C. Z., & Duval, R. D. (1993). Bootstrapping: A nonparametric approach to statistical inference. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412983532
39. Moradi, B., & Subich, L. M. (2003). A concomitant examination of the relations of perceived racist and sexist events to psychological distress for African American women. The Counseling Psychologist, 31, 451469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011000003031004007
40. Noh, S., & Kaspar, V. (2003). Perceived discrimination and depression: Moderating effects of coping, acculturation, and ethnic support. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 232-238. http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.93.2.232
41. Parent, M. C. (2013). Handling item-level missing data: Simpler is just as good. The Counseling Psychologist, 41, 568-600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011000012445176
42. Perry, B. L., Harp, K. L., & Oser, C. B. (2013). Racial and gender discrimination in the stress process: Implications for African American women's health and well-being. Sociological Perspectives, 56, 25-48.
43. Phinney, J. S. (1990). Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: Review of research. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 499-514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.499
44. Phinney, J. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156176. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/074355489272003
45. Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 271-281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271
46. Pieterse, A. L., Carter, R. T., Evans, S. A., & Walter, R. A. (2010). An exploratory examination of the associations among racial and ethnic discrimination, racial climate, and trauma-related symptoms in a college student population. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 255-263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0020040
47. Ponterotto, J. G., Gretchen, D., Utsey, S. O., Stracuzzi, T., & Saya, R., Jr. (2003). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: Psychometric review and further validity testing. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 63, 502-515. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013164403063003010
48. Reese, L. E., Vera, E. M., & Paikoff, R. L. (1998). Ethnic identity assessment among inner-city African American children: Evaluating the applicability of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure. Journal of Black Psychology, 24, 289-304. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00957984980243002
49. Roberts, R., Phinney, J., Masse, L., Chen, Y., Roberts, C., & Romero, A. (1999). The structure of ethnic identity in young adolescents from diverse ethnocultural groups. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 301-322. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0272431699019003001
50. Root, M. P. (1992). Reconstructing the impact of trauma on personality. In L. S. Brown & M. Ballou (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals (pp. 229-265). New York, NY: Guilford Press Publications.
51. Root, M. P. (2001). Women of color and traumatic stress in "domestic captivity": Gender and race as disempowering statuses. In A. J. Marsella, M. J. Friedman, E. T. Gerrity, & R. M. Scurfield (Eds.), Ehtnocultural aspects ofposttramautic stress disorder (pp. 363-387). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
52. Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
53. Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & Garcia, A. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 921-948. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0035754
54. Sellers, R. M., Caldwell, C. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2003). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychological distress among African American young adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 302-317. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1519781
55. Settles, I. (2006). Use of an intersectional framework to understand Black women's racial and gender identities. Sex Roles, 54, 589-601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9029-8
56. Shimizu, C. P. (2007). The hypersexuality of race: Performing Asian American women on screen and scene. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/9780822389941
57. Sprecher, S., Brooks, J. E., & Avogo, W. (2013). Self-esteem among young adults: Differences and similarities base don gender, race, and cohort (1990-2012). Sex Roles, 69, 264-275. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0295-y
58. Stephens, D. P., & Phillips, L. D. (2003). Freaks, gold diggers, divas, and dykes: The sociohistorical development of adolescent African American women's sexual scripts. Sexuality & Culture, 7, 3-49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF03159848
59. Stevens-Watkins, D., Perry, B., Pullen, E., Jewell, J., & Oser, C. B. (2014). Examining the associations of racism, sexism, and stressful life events on psychological distress among African-American women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20, 561-569. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036700
60. Szymanski, D. M., & Balsam, K. F. (2011). Insidious trauma: Examining the relationship between heterosexism and lesbians' PTSD symptoms. Traumatology, 17, 4-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1534765609358464
61. Szymanski, D. M., & Owens, G. P. (2009). Group-level coping as a moderator between heterosexism and sexism and psychological distress in sexual minority women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 197205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01489.x
62. Szymanski, D. M., & Stewart, D. N. (2010). Racism and sexism as correlates of African American women's psychological distress. Sex Roles, 63, 226-238. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9788-0
63. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2004). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
64. Thomas, A. J., Hacker, J. D., & Hoxha, D. (2011). Gendered racial identity of Black young women. Sex Roles, 64, 530-542. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9939-y
65. Thomas, A. J., Witherspoon, K. M., & Speight, S. L. (2004). Toward the development of the Stereotypic Roles for Black Women Scale. Journal of Black Psychology, 30, 426-442. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0095798404266061
66. Thomas, A. J., Witherspoon, K. M., & Speight, S. L. (2008). Gendered racism, psychological distress, and coping styles of African American women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14, 307314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.307
67. Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women. The National Violence Against Women Survey. U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved from https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/183781.pdf
68. Torres, L., & Taknint, J. T. (2015). Ethnic microaggressions, traumatic stress symptoms, and Latino depression: A moderated mediational model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62, 393-401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/cou0000077
69. Twenge, J. M., & Crocker, J. (2002). Race and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing whites, blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000). Psychological Bulletin, 128, 371-408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.3.371
70. Tylka, T. L., & Sabik, N. J. (2010). Integrating social comparison theory and self-esteem within objectification theory to predict women's disordered eating. Sex Roles, 63, 18-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9785-3
71. Umaña-Taylor, A. J., Tynes, B. M., Toomey, R. B., Williams, D. R., & Mitchell, K. J. (2015). Latino adolescents' perceived discrimination in online and offline settings: An examination of cultural risk and protective factors. Developmental Psychology, 51, 87-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038432
72. Velez, B. L., Campos, I. D., & Moradi, B. (2015). Relations of sexual objectification and racist discrimination with Latina women's body image and mental health. The Counseling Psychologist, 43, 906-935. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011000015591287
73. Velez, B. L., Moradi, B., & DeBlaere, C. (2015). Multiple oppressions and the mental health of sexual minority Latina/o individuals. The Counseling Psychologist, 43, 7-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011000014542836
74. Watson, L. B., Ancis, J. R., White, D. N., & Nazari, N. (2013). Racial identity buffers African American women from body image problems and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 37, 337-350. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684312474799
75. Watson, L. B., Robinson, D., Dispenza, F., & Nazari, N. (2012). African American women's sexual objectification experiences: A qualitative study. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 458-475. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361684312454724
76. Wei, M., Wang, K. T., Heppner, P. P., & Du, Y. (2012). Ethnic and mainstream social connectedness, perceived racial discrimination, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59, 486-493. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0028000
77. Weston, R., & Gore, P. A., Jr. (2006). A brief guide to structural equation modeling. The Counseling Psychologist, 34, 719-751. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011000006286345
78. Worrell, F. C. (2000). A validity study of scores on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure based on a sample of academically talented adolescents. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 60, 439-447. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00131640021970646
79. Yip, T., Gee, G. C., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2008). Racial discrimination and psychological distress: The impact of ethnic identity and age among immigrant and United States-born Asian adults. Developmental Psychology, 44, 787-800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.787
80. Yoo, H. C., & Lee, R. M. (2008). Does ethnic identity buffer or exacerbate the effects of frequent racial discrimination on situational well-being of Asian Americans? Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55, 63-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.55.1.63
81. Zhang, Y., Dixon, T. L., & Conrad, K. (2009). Rap music videos and African American women's body image: The moderating role of ethnic identity. Journal of Communication, 59, 262-278. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01415.x