Understanding the Link Between Multiple Oppressions and Depression Among African American Women: The Role of Internalization

Psychology of Women Quarterly

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 233-245

  Carr, Erika R ^a   Szymanski, Dawn M ^b   Taha, Farah ^c   West, Lindsey M ^d   Kaslow, Nadine J ^e  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE   (United States)

^c CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK   (United States)

^d AUGUSTA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

coping behaviors; depression; objectification; racism; sexism

Indexed keywords

EID: 84901263554     PISSN: 03616843     EISSN: 14716402     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0361684313499900     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. Guidelines for psychological practice with girls and women.American Psychologist. 2007;62:949-979.
2. Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. Washington, DC: Author; 2010:.
3. Beck A. T.,Steer R. A.,Brown G.Beck Depression Inventory-II manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation; 1996:.
4. Belle D.,Doucet J.Poverty, inequality, and discrimination as sources of depression among U.S. women.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2003;27:101-113.
5. Bhugra D.,Ayonrinde O.Racism, racial life events and mental ill health.Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 2001;7:343-349.
6. Bjorck J. P.,Thurman J. W.Negative life events, patterns of positive and negative religious coping, and psychological functioning.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 2007;46:159-167.
7. Brown T. N.,Williams D. R.,Jackson J. S.,Neighbors H. W.,Torres M.,Sellers S. L,Brown K. T."Being Black and feeling blue": The mental health consequences of racial discrimination.Race and Society. 2000;2:117-131.
8. Buchanan N. T.Incorporating race and gender in sexual harassment research: The Racialized Sexual Harassment Scale (RSHS). Philadelphia, PA: Symposium presented at the meeting of the International Coalition Against Sexual Harassment; 2005:.
9. Carr E. R.,Szymanski D. M.Sexual objectification and substance use in young adult women.The Counseling Psychologist. 2011;39:39-66.
10. Carrington C. H.Clinical depression in African American women: Diagnoses, treatment, and research.Journal of Clinical Psycholgy. 2006;62:779-791.
11. Clark R.,Anderson N. B.,Clark V. R.,Williams D. R.Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model.American Psychologist. 1999;54:805-816.
12. Cole E. R.Intersectionality and research in psychology.American Psychologist. 2009;64:170-180.
13. Collins P. H.African American feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York, NY: Routledge; 1991:.
14. Cortina L. M.,Curtin N.,Stewart A. J.Where is social structure in personality research?: A feminist analysis of publication trends.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2012;36:259-273.
15. Cutrona C. E.,Russell D. W.,Brown P. A.,Clark L. A.,Hessling R. M.,Gardner K. A.Neighborhood context, personality, and stressful life events as predictors of depression among African American women.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2005;114:3-15.
16. DeBlaere C.,Moradi B.Structures of the schedules of racist and sexist events: Confirmatory factor analyses of African American women's responses.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2008;32:83-94.
17. Enns C.New York, NY: Haworth Press; 2004:.
18. Frazier P. A.,Tix A. P.,Barron K. E.Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research.Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2004;51:115-134.
19. Fredrickson B. L.,Roberts T.Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 1997;21:173-206.
20. Goodman L. A.,Smyth K. F.,Borges A. M.,Singer R.When crises collide: How intimate partner violence and poverty intersect to shape women's mental health and coping?.Trauma, Violence & Abuse. 2009;10:306-329.
21. Greene B.Woman of color: Integrating ethnic and gender identities in psychotherapy. Comas-Diaz L.Greene B., ed. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1994:10-29.
22. Greer T. M.Coping strategies as moderators of the relation between individual race-related stress and mental health symptoms for African American women.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2011;35:215-226.
23. Grothe K. B.,Dutton G. R.,Jones G. N.,Bodenlos J.,Ancona M.,Brantley P. J.Validation of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in a low-income African American sample of medical outpatients.Psychological Assessment. 2005;17:110-114.
24. Hatzenbuehler M. L.How does sexual minority stigma "get under the skin"? A psychological mediation framework.Psychological Bulletin. 2009;135:707-730.
25. Jones H. L.,Cross W. E.,DeFour D. C.Race-related stress, racial identity attitudes, and mental health among Black women.Journal of Black Psychology. 2007;33:208-231.
26. Kessler R. C.,Chiu W. T.,Demler O.,Walters E. E.Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of twelve-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R).Archives of General Psychiatry. 2005;62:617-627.
27. Kessler R. C.,Merikangas K. R.,Wang P. S.Prevalence, comorbidity, and service utilization for mood disorders in the United States at the beginning of the twenty-first century.Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 2007;3:137-158.
28. Klevens C. L.Coping style as a moderator between gendered racism and emotional eating and binge eating in African American women.Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering. 2008;68:6968.
29. Kline R. X.Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. 2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2011:.
30. Klonoff E. A.,Landrine H.Cross-validation of the schedule of racist events.Journal of Black Psychology. 1999;25:231-254.
31. Klonoff E. A.,Landrine H.,Ullman J. B.Racial discrimination and psychiatric symptoms among Blacks.Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 1999;5:329-339.
32. Kozee H. B.,Tylka T. L.,Augustus-Horvath C. L.,Denchik A.Development and psychometric evaluation of the Interpersonal Sexual Objectification Scale.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2007;31:176-189.
33. Landrine H.,Klonoff E. A.The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences.The Journal of Black Psychology. 1996;22:144-168.
34. Little R. J.,An H.,Johanns J.,Giordani B.A comparison of subset selection and analysis of covariance for the adjustment of confounders.Psychological Methods. 2000;5:459-476.
35. Mallinckrodt B.,Abraham W. T.,Wei M.,Russell W.Advances in testing the statistical significance of mediation effects.Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2006;53:372-378.
36. Mckorkle K. C.Effects of maternal internalized racism, socioeconomic status, depression, and parenting quality upon child maladjustment. 1991:.
37. Miller G. A.,Chapman J. P.Misunderstanding analysis of covariance.Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 2001;110:40-48.
38. Miranda J.,Green B. L.The need for mental health services research focusing on poor young women.The Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics. 1999;2:3-80.
39. Moradi B.,Huang Y.Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2008;32:377-398.
40. Moradi B.,Subich L. M.A concomitant examination of the relations of perceived racist and sexist events to psychological distress for African American women.The Counseling Psychologist. 2003;31:451-469.
41. Neighbors H. W.,Caldwell C. H.,Williams D. R.,Neese R.,Taylor R. J.,Bullard K. M.,Jackson J. S.Race, ethnicity, and the use of services for mental disorders: Results from the national survey of American life.Archives of General Psychiatry. 2007;64:485-494.
42. Nolen-Hoeksema S.Gender differences in depression.Current Directions in Psychological Science. 2001;10:173-176.
43. Nyamathi A.,Wayment H. A.,Dunkel-Schetter C.Psychosocial correlates of emotional distress and risk behavior in African-American women at risk for HIV infection.Anxiety, Stress, and Coping: An International Journal. 1993;6:133-148.
44. Overstreet N. M.,Quinn D. M.Contingencies of self-worth and appearance concerns: Do domains of self-worth matter?.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2012;36:314-325.
45. Pargament K. I.,Koenig H. G.,Perez L.The many methods of religious coping: Development and initial validation of the RCOPE.Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2000;56:519-543.
46. Pargament K. I.,Smith B. W.,Koenig H. G.,Perez L.Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors.Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. 1998;18:710-724.
47. Pascoe E. A.,Smart Richman L.Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review.Psychological Bulletin. 2009;135:532-554.
48. Pieterse A. L.,Todd N. R.,Neville H. A.,Carter R. T.Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: A meta-analytic review.Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2012;59:1-9.
49. Pratt L. A.,Brody D. J.Depression in the United States household population, 2005-2006.NCHS Data Brief. 2008;7:1-8.
50. Preacher K. J.,Hayes A. F.Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models.Behavior Research Methods. 2008;40:79-891.
51. Sashidharan T.,Pawlow L. A.,Pettibone J. C.An examination of racial bias in the Beck Depression Inventory-II.Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2012;18:203-209.
52. Shields S. A.Gender: An intersectionality perspective.Sex Roles. 2008;59:301-311.
53. Shorter-Gooden K.Multiple resistance strategies: How African American women cope with racism and sexism.Journal of Black Psychology. 2004;30:406-425.
54. Shrout P. E.,Bolger N.Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations.Psychological Methods. 2002;7:422-445.
55. Siefert K.,Heflin C. M.,Corcoran M. E.,Williams D. R.Food insufficiency and physical and mental health in a longitudinal study of welfare recipients.Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2004;45:171-186.
56. Smith L.Positioning classism within counseling psychology's social justice agenda. The Counseling Psychologist. 2008;36:895-924.
57. Stewart A. J.Gender and psychology reader. Clinchy B. M.Norem J. K., ed. New York, NY: New York University Press; 1998:54-68.
58. Strine T. W.,Mokdad A. H,Balluz L. S.,Gonzalez O.,Crider R.,Berry J. T.,Kroenke K.Depression and anxiety in the United States: Findings from the 2006 behavioral risk factor surveillance system.Psychiatric Services. 2008;59:1383-1390.
59. Results from the 2010 national survey on drug use and health: Mental health findings. Rockville, MD: Author; 2012:.
60. Sue D. W.,Sue D.Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice. 2003). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (4th ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley.New York, NY: John Wiley; 2003:.
61. Swim J. K.,Hyers L. L.,Cohen L. L.,Ferguson M. J.Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies.Journal of Social Issues. 2001;57:31-53.
62. Szymanski D. M.,Henning S. L.The role of self-objectification in women's depression: A test of objectification theory.Sex Roles. 2007;56:45-53.
63. Szymanski D. M.,Moffitt L. B.Handbook of counseling psychology: Theories, practice, training, and policy. Fouad N. A., ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2012:361-390.
64. Szymanski D. M.,Moffitt L. B.,Carr E. R.Sexual objectification of women: Advances to theory and research.The Counseling Psychologist. 2011;39:6-38.
65. Szymanski D. M.,Obiri O.Do religious coping styles moderate or mediate the external and internalized racism-distress links?.The Counseling Psychologist. 2011;39:438-462.
66. Szymanski D. M.,Stewart D.Racism and sexism as correlates of African American women's psychological distress.Sex Roles. 2010;63:226-238.
67. Thomas A. J.,Witherspoon K. M.,Speight S. L.Toward the development of the stereotypic roles of Black women scale.Journal of Black Psychology. 2004;30:426-442.
68. Thomas A. J.,Witherspoon K. M.,Speight S. L.Gendered racism, psychological distress, and coping styles of African American women.Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2008;14:307-314.
69. Thomspon B.Misuse of ANCOVA and related "statistical control" procedures.Reading Psychology. 1992;13:iii-xviii.
70. Tiggemann M.,Kuring J. K.The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood.British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2004;43:299-311.
71. Tomes E.,Brown A.,Semenya K.,Simpson J.Depression in Black women of low socioeconomic status: Psychological factors and nursing diagnosis.Journal of National Black Nurses Association. 1990;4:37-46.
72. Population estimates by demographic characteristics, Table 2: Annual estimates of the population by selected age groups and sex for the United States: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2004. 2005:.
73. Current population survey. Annual social and economic supplement. 2008:.
74. Poverty thresholds by size of family and number of children. 2012:.
75. Utsey S. O.,Ponterotto J. G.,Reynolds A. L.,Cancelli A. A.Racial discrimination, coping, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among African Americans.Journal of Counseling & Development. 2000;78:72-81.
76. Warner L. R.A best practices guide to intersectional approaches in psychological research.Sex Roles. 2008;59:454-463.
77. Warren B. J.Depression in African American women.Journal of Psychosocial Nurse Mental Health Services. 1994;32:29-33.
78. Wei M.,Alvarez A. N.,Ku T.,Russell D. W.,Bonett D. G.Development and validation of a coping with discrimination scale: Factor structure, reliability, and validity.Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2010;57:328-344.
79. West L. M.,Donovan R. A.,Roemer L.Coping with racism: What works and doesn't work for Black women?.Journal of Black Psychology. 2010;36:331-349.
80. Weston R.,Gore P. A.A brief guide to structural equation modeling.The Counseling Psychologist. 2006;34:719-751.
81. Williams D. R.,Chung A.-M.Health in Black America. Gibson R.Jackson J. S., ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1999:75-92.
82. Williams D. R.,Gonzalez H. M.,Neighbors H.,Nesse R.,Abelson J. M.,Sweetman J.,Jackson J. S.Prevalence and distribution of major depressive disorder in African Americans, Caribbean Blacks, and Non-Hispanic Whites: Results from the national survey of American life.Archives of General Psychiatry. 2007;64:305-315.
83. Williams D. R.,Williams-Morris R.Racism and mental health: The African American experience.Ethnicity and Health. 2000;5:243-268.
84. Woods K. C.,Buchanan N. T.,Settles I. H.Sexual harassment across the color line: Experiences and outcomes of cross versus intraracial sexual harassment among Black women.Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology. 2008;15:1-11.
85. Worell J.,Remer P.Feminist perspectives in therapy. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley; 2003:.
86. The global burden of disease: 2004 Update, Table A2: Burden of disease in DALYs by cause, sex and income group in WHO regions, estimates for 2004. 2004:.