Managing thyroid disease in general practice

Medical Journal of Australia

Volumn 205, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 179-184

  Walsh, John P ^a,b  

^a SIR CHARLES GAIRDNER HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

THYROID ANTIBODY; THYROTROPIN; THYROXINE;

ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNE THYROIDITIS; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; ECHOGRAPHY; ENDOSCOPIC ULTRASOUND GUIDED FINE NEEDLE BIOPSY; FREE LIOTHYRONINE INDEX; FREE THYROXINE INDEX; GRAVES DISEASE; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; HYPOTHYROIDISM; NODULAR GOITER; SUBACUTE THYROIDITIS; THYROID DISEASE; THYROID FUNCTION TEST; TREATMENT RESPONSE; ADULT; AGED; BLOOD; FEMALE; GENERAL PRACTICE; HYPERTHYROIDISM; MALE; MASS SCREENING; MIDDLE AGED; PREGNANCY; REFERENCE VALUE; THYROID DISEASES;

ADULT; AGED; FEMALE; GENERAL PRACTICE; HUMANS; HYPERTHYROIDISM; HYPOTHYROIDISM; MALE; MASS SCREENING; MIDDLE AGED; PREGNANCY; REFERENCE VALUES; THYROID DISEASES; THYROID FUNCTION TESTS; THYROTROPIN;

EID: 84982245407     PISSN: 0025729X     EISSN: 13265377     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5694/mja16.00545     Document Type: Article

References (50)

1. Li M, Eastman CJ, Waite KV, et al. Are Australian children iodine deficient? Results of the Australian National Iodine Nutrition Study. Med J Aust 2006; 184: 165-169. https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2006/184/4/are-australian-children-iodine-deficient-results-australian-national-iodine
2. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Health Survey: Biomedical Results for Nutrients, 2011-12. Feature Article: Iodine. Canberra: ABS, 2013. http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4364.0.55.006Chapter1202011-12 (accessed June 2016).
3. O’Leary PC, Feddema PH, Michelangeli VP, et al. Investigations of thyroid hormones and antibodies based on a community health survey: the Busselton thyroid study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006; 64: 97-104.
4. Walsh JP, Bremner AP, Feddema P, et al. Thyrotropin and thyroid antibodies as predictors of hypothyroidism: a 13-year, longitudinal study of a community-based cohort using current immunoassay techniques. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 1095-1104.
5. Asvold BO, Vatten LJ, Midthjell K, Bjoro T. Serum TSH within the reference range as a predictor of future hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism: 11-year follow-up of the HUNT Study in Norway. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 93-99.
6. Brabant G, Beck-Peccoz P, Jarzab B, et al. Is there a need to redefine the upper normal limit of TSH? Eur J Endocrinol 2006; 154: 633-637.
7. Laurberg P, Andersen S, Carle A, et al. The TSH upper reference limit: where are we at? Nat Rev Endocrinol 2011; 7: 232-239.
8. Kahapola-Arachchige KM, Hadlow N, Wardrop R, et al. Age-specific TSH reference ranges have minimal impact on the diagnosis of thyroid dysfunction. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2012; 77: 773-779.
9. Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G, Ridgway EC. The Colorado Thyroid Disease Prevalence Study. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 526-534.
10. Meyerovitch J, Rotman-Pikielny P, Sherf M, et al. Serum thyrotropin measurements in the community: five-year follow-up in a large network of primary care physicians. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167: 1533-1538
11. Endocrine Society of Australia. Top 5 low-value practices and interventions: Sydney: Royal Australasian College of Physicians, 2015. http://evolve.edu.au/published-lists/esa (accessed Apr 2016).
12. Rugge JB, Bougatsos C, Chou R. Screening and treatment of thyroid dysfunction: an evidence review for the US Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2015; 162: 35-45.
13. Biondi B, Cooper DS. The clinical significance of subclinical thyroid dysfunction. Endocr Rev 2008; 29: 76-131.
14. Rodondi N, den Elzen WP, Bauer DC, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism and the risk of coronary heart disease and mortality. JAMA 2010; 304: 1365-1374.
15. Gencer B, Collet TH, Virgini V, et al. Subclinical thyroid dysfunction and the risk of heart failure events: an individual participant data analysis from 6 prospective cohorts. Circulation 2012; 126: 1040-1049.
16. Razvi S, Weaver JU, Butler TJ, Pearce SH. Levothyroxine treatment of subclinical hypothyroidism, fatal and nonfatal cardiovascular events, and mortality. Arch Intern Med 2012; 172: 811-817.
17. Pollock MA, Sturrock A, Marshall K, et al. Thyroxine treatment in patients with symptoms of hypothyroidism but thyroid function tests within the reference range: randomised double blind placebo controlled crossover trial. BMJ 2001; 323: 891-895.
18. Jonklaas J, Bianco AC, Bauer AJ, et al. Guidelines for the treatment of hypothyroidism: prepared by the American Thyroid Association Task Force on thyroid hormone replacement. Thyroid 2014; 24: 1670-1751.
19. Walsh JP. Dissatisfaction with thyroxine therapy – could the patients be right? Curr Opin Pharmacol 2002; 2: 717-722.
20. Walsh JP, Ward LC, Burke V, et al. Small changes in thyroxine dosage do not produce measurable changes in hypothyroid symptoms, well-being, or quality of life: results of a double-blind, randomized clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 2624-2630.
21. Flynn RW, Bonellie SR, Jung RT, et al. Serum thyroidstimulating hormone concentration and morbidity from cardiovascular disease and fractures in patients on longterm thyroxine therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 186-193.
22. Walsh JP, Shiels L, Lim EM, et al. Combined thyroxine/liothyronine treatment does not improve well-being, quality of life, or cognitive function compared to thyroxine alone: a randomized controlled trial in patients with primary hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88: 4543-4550.
23. Grozinsky-Glasberg S, Fraser A, Nahshoni E, et al. Thyroxine-triiodothyronine combination therapy versus thyroxine monotherapy for clinical hypothyroidism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 2592-2599.
24. Hoang TD, Olsen CH, Mai VQ, et al. Desiccated thyroid extract compared with levothyroxine in the treatment of hypothyroidism: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98: 1982-1990
25. van Zuuren EJ, Albusta AY, Fedorowicz Z, et al. Selenium supplementation for Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 6: CD010223.
26. Bahn RS, Burch HB, Cooper DS, et al. Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Thyroid 2011; 21: 593-646.
27. Haugen BR, Alexander EK, Bible KC, et al. 2015 American Thyroid Association management guidelines for adult patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer: The American Thyroid Association Guidelines Task Force on thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid 2016; 26: 1-133.
28. Hegedüs L, Bonnema SJ, Bennedbæk FN. Management of simple nodular goiter: current status and future perspectives. Endocr Rev 2003; 24: 102-132.
29. Harach HR, Franssila KO, Wasenius VM. Occult papillary carcinoma of the thyroid. A “normal” finding in Finland. A systematic autopsy study. Cancer 1985; 56: 531-538
30. Davies L, Welch HG. Current thyroid cancer trends in the United States. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2014; 140: 317-322.
31. Pandeya N, McLeod DS, Balasubramaniam K, et al. Increasing thyroid cancer incidence in Queensland, Australia 1982-2008-true increase or overdiagnosis? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2016; 84: 257-264.
32. Burgess JR. Temporal trends for thyroid carcinoma in Australia: an increasing incidence of papillary thyroid carcinoma (1982-1997). Thyroid 2002; 12: 141-149
33. Brito JP, Morris JC, Montori VM. Thyroid cancer: zealous imaging has increased detection and treatment of low risk tumours. BMJ 2013; 347: f4706.
34. Ahn HS, Kim HJ, Welch HG. Korea’s thyroid-cancer “epidemic”escreening and overdiagnosis. N Engl J Med 2014; 371: 1765-1767.
35. Laurberg P, Andersen SL, Pedersen IB, et al. Screening for overt thyroid disease in early pregnancy may be preferable to searching for small aberrations in thyroid function tests. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2013; 79: 297-304
36. Hynes KL, Otahal P, Hay I, Burgess JR. Mild iodine deficiency during pregnancy is associated with reduced educational outcomes in the offspring: 9-year follow-up of the gestational iodine cohort. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98: 1954-1962.
37. Burgess JR, Seal JA, Stilwell GM, et al. A case for universal salt iodisation to correct iodine deficiency in pregnancy: another salutary lesson from Tasmania. MJA 2007; 186: 574-576.
38. Stagnaro-Green A, Abalovich M, Alexander E, et al. Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and postpartum. Thyroid 2011; 21: 1081-1125
39. De Groot L, Abalovich M, Alexander EK, et al. Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97: 2543-2565.
40. Negro R, Stagnaro-Green A. Diagnosis and management of subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnancy. BMJ 2014; 349: g4929.
41. Wiles KS, Jarvis S, Nelson-Piercy C. Are we overtreating subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnancy? BMJ 2015; 351: h4726.
42. Medici M, Korevaar TI, Visser WE, et al. Thyroid function in pregnancy: what is normal? Clin Chem 2015; 61: 704-713.
43. Laurberg P, Andersen SL, Hindersson P, et al. Dynamics and predictors of serum TSH and fT4 reference limits in early pregnancy. A study within the Danish National Birth Cohort. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016: 101:2484-2492.
44. Maraka S, Ospina NM, O’Keeffe DT, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Thyroid 2016; 26: 580-590.
45. Ong GS, Hadlow NC, Brown SJ, et al. Does the thyroidstimulating hormone measured concurrently with first trimester biochemical screening tests predict adverse pregnancy outcomes occurring after 20 weeks gestation? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99: E2668-E2672.
46. Mannisto T, Vaarasmaki M, Pouta A, et al. Perinatal outcome of children born to mothers with thyroid dysfunction or antibodies: a prospective populationbased cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2009; 94: 772-779.
47. Negro R, Formoso G, Mangieri T, et al. Levothyroxine treatment in euthyroid pregnant women with autoimmune thyroid disease: effects on obstetrical complications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 2587-2591.
48. Lazarus JH, Bestwick JP, Channon S, et al. Antenatal thyroid screening and childhood cognitive function. N Engl J Med 2012; 366: 493-501.
49. Brabant G, Peeters RP, Chan SY, et al. Management of subclinical hypothyroidism in pregnancy: are we too simplistic? Eur J Endocrinol 2015; 173: P1-P11
50. Casey BM, Dashe JS, Wells CE, et al. Subclinical hyperthyroidism and pregnancy outcomes. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 107: 337-341