Diagnosis of ebola virus disease: Past, present, and future

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 29, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 773-793

  Broadhurst, M Jana ^a   Brooks, Tim J G ^b   Pollock, Nira R ^c  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b PUBLIC HEALTH ENGLAND   (United Kingdom)

^c BOSTON CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIGEN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; IMMUNOGLOBULIN M;

ANTIBODY DETECTION; BIOSAFETY; CELL CULTURE; EBOLA HEMORRHAGIC FEVER; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; GENE SEQUENCE; HUMAN; IMMUNOASSAY; NONHUMAN; REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; REVIEW; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; HEMORRHAGIC FEVER, EBOLA; LABORATORY TEST; PROCEDURES; TRENDS;

CLINICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES; DIAGNOSTIC TESTS, ROUTINE; HEMORRHAGIC FEVER, EBOLA; HUMANS;

EID: 84978906705     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: 10986618     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00003-16     Document Type: Review

References (132)

1. Strong JE, Grolla A, Jahrling PB, Feldmann H. 2006. Filoviruses and arenaviruses, p 774-790. In Detrick B, Hamilton RG, Folds JD (ed), Manual of molecular and clinical laboratory immunology, 7th ed. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
2. Towner JS, Rollin PE, Bausch DG, Sanchez A, Crary SM, Vincent M, Lee WF, Spiropoulou CF, Ksiazek TG, Lukwiya M, Kaducu F, Downing R, Nichol S. 2004. Rapid diagnosis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever by reverse transcription-PCR in an outbreak setting and assessment of patient viral load as a predictor of outcome. J Virol 78: 4330-4341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.78.8.4330-4341.2004.
3. Kortepeter MG, Bausch DG, Bray M. 2011. Basic clinical and laboratory features of filoviral hemorrhagic fever. J Infect Dis 204: S810-S816. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jir299.
4. Schieffelin JS, Shaffer JG, Goba A, Gbakie M, Gire SK, Colubri A, Sealfon RS, Kanneh L, Moigboi A, Momoh M, Fullah M, Moses LM, Brown BL, Andersen KG, Winnicki S, Schaffner SF, Park DJ, Yozwiak NL, Jiang PP, Kargbo D, Jalloh S, Fonnie M, Sinnah V, French I, Kovoma A, Kamara FK, Tucker V, Konuwa E, Sellu J, Mustapha I, Foday M, Yillah M, Kanneh F, Saffa S, Massally JL, Boisen ML, Branco LM, Vandi MA, Grant DS, Happi C, Gevao SM, Fletcher TE, Fowler RA, Bausch DG, Sabeti PC, Khan SH, Garry RF, KGH Lassa Fever Program, Viral Hemorrhagic Fever Consortium, WHO Clinical Response Team. 2014. Clinical illness and outcomes in patients with Ebola in Sierra Leone. N Engl J Med 371: 2092-2100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1411680.
5. Feldmann H, Sanchez A, Geisbert TW. 2013. Filoviridae: Marburg and Ebola viruses, p 923-962. In Knipe EM, HowleyPM(ed), Fields virology, 6th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
6. Johnson KM, Lange JV, Webb PA, Murphy FA. 1977. Isolation and partial characterisation of a new virus causing acute haemorrhagic fever in Zaire. Lancet 310: 569-571. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(77)90719-X.
7. WHO International Study Team. 1978. Ebola hemorrhagic fever in Sudan, 1976. Bull World Health Organ 56: 247-270.
8. Wulff H, Lange J. 1975. Indirect immunofluorescence for the diagnosis of Lassa fever infection. Bull World Health Organ 52: 429-436.
9. Ksiazek TG, West CP, Rollin PE, Jahrling PB, Peters CJ. 1999. ELISA for the detection of antibodies to Ebola viruses. J Infect Dis 179: S192-S198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/514313.
10. Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Williams AJ, Bressler DS, Martin ML, Swanepoel R, Burt FJ, Leman PA, Khan AS, Rowe AK, Mukunu R, Sanchez A, Peters CJ. 1999. Clinical virology of Ebola hemorrhagic fever (EHF): virus, virus antigen, and IgG and IgM antibody findings among EHF patients in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. J Infect Dis 179: S177-S187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/514321.
11. Grolla A, Lucht A, Dick D, Strong JE, Feldmann H. 2005. Laboratory diagnosis of Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 98: 205-209.
12. de La Vega M, Caleo G, Audet J, Qiu X, Kozak R, Brooks JI, Kern S, Wolz A, Sprecher A, Greig J, Lokuge K, Kargbo DK, Kargbo B, Di Caro A, Grolla A, Kobasa D, Strong JE, Ippolito G, Van Herp M, Kobinger GP. 2015. Ebola viral load at diagnosis associates with patient outcome and outbreak evolution. J Clin Invest 125: 4421-4428. http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI83162.
13. Saijo M, Niikura M, Ikegami T, Kurane I, Kurata T, Morikawa S. 2006. Laboratory diagnostic systems for Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fevers developed with recombinant proteins. Clin Vaccine Immunol 13: 444-451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CVI.13.4.444-451.2006.
14. Alpha Diagnostic International. 2016. Zaire-Ebola virus nucleoprotein (EBOV-NP) IgG (AE-320520-1) kit and IgM (AE-320530-1) ELISA kit product descriptions. Alpha Diagnostics International, Inc., San Antonio, TX.
15. Uyeki TM, Mehta AK, Davey RT, Liddell AM, Wolf T, Vetter P, Schmiedel S, Grunewald T, Jacobs M, Arribas JR, Evans L, Hewlett AL, Brantsaeter AB, Ippolito G, Rapp C, Hoepelman AIM, Gutman J, Working Group of the US-European Clinical Network on Clinical Management of Ebola Virus Disease Patients in the US and Europe. 2016. Clinical management of Ebola virus disease in the United States and Europe. N Engl J Med 374: 636-646. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1504874.
16. MacNeil A, Reed Z, Rollin P. 2011. Serologic cross-reactivity of human IgM and IgG antibodies to five species of Ebola virus. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5: e1175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001175.
17. Rowe AK, Bertolli J, Khan AS, Mukunu R, Muyembe-Tamfum JJ, Bressler D, Williams AJ, Peters CJ, Rodriguez L, Feldmann H, Nichol ST, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG. 1999. Clinical, virologic, and immunologic follow-up of convalescent Ebola hemorrhagic fever patients and their household contacts, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo. J Infect Dis 179: S28-S35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/514318.
18. Baize S, Leroy EM, Georges-Courbot MC, Capron M, Lansoud-Soukate J, Debre P, Fisher-Hich SP, McCormick JB, Georges AJ. 1999. Defective humoral responses and extensive intravascular apoptosis are associated with fatal outcomes in Ebola virus-infected patients. Nat Med 5: 423-426. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/7422.
19. Leroy EM, Baize S, Volchkov VE, Fisher-Hoch SP, Georges-Courbot MC, Lansoud-Soukate J, Capron M, Debre P, McCorkmich JB, Georges AJ. 2000. Human asymptomatic Ebola infection and strong inflammatory response. Lancet 355: 2210-2215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02405-3.
20. Wauquier N, Becquart P, Gasquet C, Leroy EM. 2009. Immunoglobulin G in Ebola outbreak survivors, Gabon. Emerg Infect Dis 15: 1136-1137. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1507.090402.
21. Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Jahrling PB, Johnson E, Dalgard DW, Peters CJ. 1992. Enzyme immunosorbent assay for Ebola virus antigens in tissues of infected primates. J Clin Microbiol 30: 947-950.
22. Niikura M, Ikegami T, Saijo M, Kurane I, Miranda ME, Morikawa S. 2001. Detection of Ebola viral antigen by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using a novel monoclonal antibody to nucleoprotein. J Clin Microbiol 39: 3267-3271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.39.9.3267-3271.2001.
23. Lucht A, Grunow R, Moller P, Feldmann H, Becker S. 2003. Development, characterization and use of monoclonal VP40-antibodies for the detection of Ebola virus. J Virol Methods 111: 21-28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0166-0934(03)00131-9.
24. Lucht A, Grunow R, Otterbein C, Moller P, Feldmann H, Becker S. 2004. Production of monoclonal antibodies and development of an antigen capture ELISA directed against the envelope glycoprotein GP of Ebola virus. Med Microbiol Immunol 193: 181-187. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00430-003-0204-z.
25. Reusken C, Niedrig M, Pas S, Anda P, Baize S, Charrel R, Di Caro A, Drosten C, Fernandez-Garcia MD, Franco L, Gunther S, Leparc-Goffart I, Martina B, Pannetier D, Papa A, Sanchez-Seco MP, Vapalahti L, Koopmans M. 2014. Identification of essential outstanding questions for an adequate European laboratory response to Ebolavirus Zaire West Africa 2014. J Clin Virol 72: 124-134.
26. Sanchez A, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Miranda ME, Trappier SG, Khan AS, Peters CJ, Nichol ST. 1999. Detection and molecular characterization of Ebola viruses causing disease in human and nonhuman primates. J Infect Dis 179: S164-S169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/514282.
27. Leroy EM, Baize S, Lu CY, McCormick JB, Georges AJ, Georges-Courbot MC, Lansoud-Soukate Fisher-Hoch SP. 2000. Diagnosis of Ebola haemorrhagic fever by RT-PCR in an epidemic setting. J Med Virol 60: 463-467. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1096-9071(200004)60: 4463:: AID-JMV153.0.CO;2-M.
28. Rodriguez LL, De Roo A, Guimard Y, Trappier SG, Sanchez A, Bressler D, Williams AJ, Rowe AK, Bertolli J, Khan AS, Ksiazek TG, Peters CJ, Nichol ST. 1999. Persistence and genetic stability of Ebola virus during the outbreak in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of Congo, 1995. J Infect Dis 179: S170-S176. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/514291.
29. Formenty P, Leroy EM, Epelboin A, Libama F, Lenzi M, Sudeck H, Yaba P, Allarangar Y, Boumandouki P, Nkounkou VB, Drosten C, Grolla A, Feldmann H, Roth C. 2006. Detection of Ebola virus in oral fluid specimens during outbreaks of Ebola virus hemorrhagic fever in the Republic of Congo. Clin Infect Dis 42: 1521-1526. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/503836.
30. Towner JS, Sealy TK, Khristova ML, Albarino CG, Conlan S, Reeder SA, Quan P, Lipkin WI, Downing R, Tappero JW, Okware S, Lutwama J, Bakamutumaho B, Kayiwa J, Comer JA, Rollin PE, Ksiazek TG, Nichol ST. 2008. Newly discovered Ebola virus associated with hemorrhagic fever outbreak in Uganda. PLoS Pathog 4: e1000212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000212.
31. Gibb TR, Norwood DA, Woollen N, Henchal EA. 2001. Development and evaluation of a fluorogenic 5= nuclease assay to detect and differentiate between Ebola virus subtypes Zaire and Sudan. J Clin Microbiol 39: 4125-4130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.39.11.4125-4130.2001.
32. Drosten C, Gottig S, Schilling S, Asper M, Panning M, Schmitz H, Gunther S. 2002. Rapid detection and quantification of RNA of Ebola and Marburg viruses, Lassa virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Rift Valley fever virus, dengue virus, and yellow fever virus by real-time reverse transcription-PCR. J Clin Microbiol 40: 2323-2330. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.40.7.2323-2330.2002.
33. Crowe SJ, Maenner MJ, Kuah S, Erickson BR, Coffee M, Knust M, Klena J, Foday J, Hertz D, Hermans V, Achar J, Calei GM, Van Herp M, Albarino CG, Amman B, Basile AJ, Bearden S, Belser JA, Bergeron E, Blau D, Brault AC, Campbell S, Flint M, Gibbons A, Goodman C, McCullan L, Paddock C, Russell B, Salzer JS, Sanchez A, Sealy T, Want D, Saffa B, Turay A, Nichol ST, Towner JS. 2016. Prognostic indicators for Ebola patient survival. Emerg Infect Dis 22: 217-223. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2202.151250.
34. Fitzpatrick G, Vogt F, Moi Gbabai OB, Decroo T, Keane M, De Clerck H, Grolla A, Brechard R, Stinson K, Van Herp M. 2015. The contribution of Ebola viral load at admission and other patient characteristics to mortality in a Medecins Sans Frontieres Ebola case management centre, Kailahun, Sierra Leone, June-October 2014. J Infect Dis 212: 1752-1758. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiv304.
35. Lanini S, Portella G, Vairo F, Kobinger GP, Pesenti A, Langer M, Kabia S, Brogiato G, Amone J, Castilletti C, Miccio R, Zumia A, Capobianchi MR, Di Caro A, Strada G, Ippolito G, INMI-Emergency Sierra Leone Study Group. 2015. Blood kinetics of Ebola virus in survivors and nonsurvivors. J Clin Invest 125: 4692-4698. http://dx.doi.org /10.1172/JCI83111.
36. Li J, Duan H, Chen H, Ji Y, Zhang X, Rong Y, Xu Z, Sun L, Zhang J, Liu L, Jin B, Zhang J, Du N, Su H, Teng G, Yuan Y, Qin E, Jia H, Wang S, Guo T, Want Y, Mu J, Yan T, Li A, Dong Z, Nie W, Jiang T, Li C, Gao X, Ji D, Zhuang Y, Li L, Wang L, Li W, Duan X, Lu Y, Sun Z, Kanu A, Koroma S, Zhao M, Ji J, Wang F. 2015. Age and Ebola viral load correlate with mortality and survival time in 288 Ebola virus disease patients. J Infect Dis 42: 34-39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2015.10.021.
37. Spengler JR, McElroy Harmon JR, Stroher U, Nichol ST, Spiropoulou CF. 2015. Relationship between Ebola virus real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction-based threshold cycle value and virus isolation from human plasma. J Infect Dis 212: S346-S349. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiv187.
38. World Health Organization. 2014. Laboratory diagnosis of Ebola virus disease. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/134009/1/WHO_EVD_GUIDANCE _LAB_14.1_eng.pdf.
39. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015. Guidance for collection, transport and submission of specimens for Ebola virus testing. http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/healthcare-us/laboratories/specimens.html.
40. Cherpillod P, Schibler M, Vielle G, Cordey S, Mamin A, Vetter P, Kaiser L. 2016. Ebola virus disease diagnosis by real-time RT-PCR: a comparative study of 11 different procedures. J Clin Virol 77: 9-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2016.01.017.
41. Niedrig M, Schmitz H, Becker S, Gunther S, Meulen J, Meyer H, Ellerbrok H, Nitsche A, Gelderblom HR, Drosten C. 2004. First international quality assurance study on the rapid detection of viral agents of bioterrorism. J Clin Microbiol 42: 1753-1755. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.42.4.1753-1755.2004.
42. Kelly JD. 2014. Make diagnostic centres a priority for Ebola crisis. Nature 513: 145. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/513145a.
43. World Health Organization. 2015. Manual for the care and management of patients in Ebola care units/community care centers; interim emergency guidance. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
44. Wolfel R, Stoecker K, Fleischmann E, Gramsamer B, Wagner M, Molkenthin P, Di Caro A, Gunther S, Ibrahim S, Genzel GH, Ozin-Hofsass AJ, Formenty P, Zoller L. 2015. Mobile diagnostics in outbreak response, not only for Ebola: a blueprint for a modular and robust field laboratory. Euro Surveill 20: pii-30055. http://dx.doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2015.20.44.30055.
45. World Health Organization. 2001. Outbreak of Ebola haemorrhagic fever, Uganda, August 2000-January 2001. Wkl Epidemiol Rec 76: 41-46.
46. Grolla A, Jones S, Kobinger G, Sprecher A, Girard G, Yao M, Roth C, Artsob H, Feldmann H, Strong JE. 2012. Flexibility of mobile laboratory unit in support of patient management during the 2007 Ebola-Zaire outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Zoonoses Public Health 59: 151-157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1863-2378.2012.01477.x.
47. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2016. Ebola outbreaks 2000-2014. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA. http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/outbreaks/history/summaries.html.
48. Grolla A, Jones SM, Fernando L, Strong JE, Stroher U, Moller P, Paweska JT, Burt F, Palma PP, Sprecher A, Formenty P, Roth C, Feldmann H. 2011. The use of a mobile laboratory unit in support of patient management and epidemiological surveillance during the 2005 Marburg outbreak in Angola. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 5: e1183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001183.
49. Baize S, Pannetier D, Oestereich L, Rieger T, Koivogui L, Magassouba N, Soropogui B, Sow MS, Keita S, De Clerck H, Tiffany A, Dominguez G, Loua M, Traore A, Kolie M, Malano ER, Heleze E, Bocquin A, Mely S, Raoul H, Caro V, Cadar D, Gabriel M, Pahlmann M, Tappe D, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Impourna B, Diallo AK, Formenty P, Van Herp M, Gunther S. 2014. Emergence of Zaire Ebola virus disease in Guinea. N Engl J Med 371: 1418-1425. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1404505.
50. World Health Organization. 2015. Emergency guidance, selection and use of Ebola in vitro diagnostic (IVD) assays. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/csr/resources /publications/ebola/ivd-assays/en/.
51. World Health Organization. 2014. Emergency use assessment and listing (EUAL) procedure for Ebola virus disease. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/diagnostics_laboratory /procurement/purchasing/en/.
52. World Health Organization. 2014. Target product profile for Zaire Ebolavirus rapid, simple test to be used in the control of the Ebola outbreak in West Africa. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/medicines/publications/target-product-profile.pdf.
53. Perkins MD, Kessel M. 2015. What Ebola tells us about outbreak readiness. Nat Biotechnol 33: 464-469. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nbt.3215.
54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015. Guidance for U.S. laboratories for managing and testing routine clinical specimens when there is a concern about Ebola virus disease. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA. http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/healthcare-us/laboratories/safe-specimen-management.html.
55. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USDA. 2014. Select agents and toxins list, Federal Select Agent Program. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Washington, DC. http://www.selectagents.gov /SelectAgentsandToxinsList.html.
56. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 19 November 2014. Interim guidance regarding compliance with select agent regulations for laboratories handling patient specimens that are known or suspected to contain Ebola virus. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA. http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/healthcare-us/laboratories /select-agent-regulations.html.
57. Department of Health UK, Advisory Committee on Dangerous Pathogens. 2015. Management of hazard group 4 viral haemorrhagic fevers and similar human infectious diseases of high consequence. Public Health England, London, England. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications /viral-haemorrhagic-fever-algorithm-and-guidance-on-management-of-patients.
58. World Health Organization. 2015. Interim guidance on the use of rapid Ebola antigen detection tests. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/ebola/ebola-antigen-detection/en/.
59. World Health Organization. 2014. Emergency use assessment and listing for Ebola virus disease IVDs, public report, product: RealStar filovirus screen RT-PCR kit 1.0. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/diagnostics_laboratory/procurement /purchasing/en/.
60. Janvier F, Gorbatch S, Queval L, Top J, Vigier C, Cotte J, Foissaud V. 2015. Difficulties of interpretation of Zaire Ebola virus PCR results and implication in the field. J Clin Virol 67: 36-37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcv.2015.04.001.
61. Broadhurst MJ, Kelly JD, Miller A, Semper A, Bailey D, Groppelli E, Simpson A, Brooks T, Hula S, Nyoni W, Sankoh AB, Kanu S, Jalloh A, Ton Q, Sarchet N, George P, Perkins MD, Wonderly B, Murray M, Pollock NR. 2015. ReEBOV antigen rapid test kit for point-of-care and laboratory-based testing for Ebola virus disease: a field validation study. Lancet 386: 867-874. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)61042-X.
62. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2014. Emergency use authorization, RealStar Ebolavirus RT-PCR kit 1.0; letter of authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov /MedicalDevices/Safety/EmergencySituations/ucm161496.htm#ebola.
63. World Health Organization. 2015. Emergency use assessment and listing for Ebola virus disease IVDs, public report, product: Liferiver Ebola virus (EBOV) real time RT-PCR kit. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/diagnostics_laboratory/procurement /purchasing/en/.
64. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2015. Emergency use authorization, CDC Ebola virus NP real-time RT-PCR assay; letter of authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov /MedicalDevices/Safety/EmergencySituations/ucm161496.htm#ebola.
65. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2015. Emergency use authorization, CDC Ebola virus VP40 real-time RT-PCR assay; letter of authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Safety/EmergencySituations /ucm161496.htm#ebola.
66. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2014. Emergency use authorization, DoD EZ1 real-time RT-PCR assay; letter of authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov /MedicalDevices/Safety/EmergencySituations/ucm161496.htm#ebola.
67. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2014. Emergency use authorization, LightMix Ebola Zaire rRT-PCR test; letter of authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov /MedicalDevices/Safety/EmergencySituations/ucm161496.htm#ebola.
68. Flint M, Goodman CH, Beardoen S, Blau DM, Amman BR, Basile AJ, Belser JA, Bergeron E, Bowen MD, Brault AC, Campbell S, Chakrabarti AK, Dodd KA, Erickson BR, Freeman MM, Gibbons A, Guerrero LS, Klena JD, Lash RR, Lo MK, McMullan LK, Momoh G, Massally JL, Goba A, Paddock CD, Priestley RA, Pyle M, Rayfield M, Russell J, Salzer JS, Sanchez AJ, Schuh AJ, Sealy TS, Steinau M, Stoddard RA, Taboy C, Turnsek M, Wang D, Zemtsova GE, Zivcec M, Spiropoulou CF, Stroher U, Towner JS, Nichol ST, Bird BH. 2015. Ebola virus diagnostics: the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention laboratory in Sierra Leone, August 2014 to March 2015. J Infect Dis 212: S350-S358. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiv361.
69. World Health Organization. 2015. Emergency use assessment and listing for Ebola virus disease IVDs, public report, product: Xpert Ebola assay. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/diagnostics_laboratory/procurement/purchasing/en/.
70. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2015. Emergency use authorization, Xpert Ebola assay; letter of authorization. U.S. ood and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/Safety /EmergencySituations/ucm161496.htm#ebola.
71. Pinsky BA, Sahoo MK, Sandlund J, Kleman M, Kulkarni M, Grufman P, Nygren M, Kwiatkowski R, Baron EJ, Tenover F, Denison B, Higuchi R, Van Atta R, Beer NR, Carrillo AC, Naraghi-Arani P, Mire CE, Ranadheera C, Grolla A, Lagerqvist N, Persing DH. 2015. Analytical performance characteristics of the Cepheid GeneXpert Ebola assay for the detection of Ebola virus. PLoS One 10: e0142216. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142216.
72. Jansen van Vuren P, Grobbelaar A, Storm N, Conteh O, Konneh K, Kamara A, Sanne I, Paweska JT. 2016. Comparative evaluation of the diagnostic performance of the prototype Cepheid GeneXpert Ebola assay. J Clin Microbiol 54: 359-367. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02724-15.
73. Semper A, Broadhurst MJ, Richards J, Foster G, Simpson A, Logue CH, Kelly JD, Miller A, Brooks TJG, Murray M, Pollock NR. 2016. Perfomance of the GeneXpert Ebola assay for diagnosis of Ebola virus disease in Sierra Leone: a field evaluation study. PLoS Med 13: e1001980. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001980.
74. Trombley AR, Wachter L, Garrison J, Buckley-Beason VA, Jahrling J, Hensley LE, Schoepp RJ, Norwood DA, Goba A, Fair JN, Kulesh DA. 2010. Comprehensive panel of real-time TaqMan polymerase chain reation assays for detection and absolute quantification of filoviruses, arenaviruses, and new world hantaviruses. Am J Trop Med Hyg 82: 954-960. http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0636.
75. Van den Bergh R, Chaillet P, Sow MS, Amand M, van Vyve C, Jonckheere S, Crestani R, Sprecher A, Van Herp M, Chua A, Piriou E, Koivogui L, Antierens A. 2015. Feasibility of Xpert Ebola assay in Medecins Sans Frontieres Ebola Program, Guinea. Emerg Infect Dis 22:210-216. doi 10.3201/eid2202.151238.
76. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2014. Emergency use authorization, FilmArray Biothreat-E test; letter of authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov/Medical Devices/Safety/EmergencySituations/ucm161496.htm#ebola.
77. World Health Organization. 2015. Emergency use assessment and listing for Ebola virus disease IVDs, public report, product: FilmArray Biothreat-E. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/diagnostics_laboratory/procurement/purchasing/en/.
78. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2015. Emergency use authorization, FilmArray NGDS BT-E assay; letter of authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov/Medical Devices/Safety/EmergencySituations/ucm161496.htm#ebola.
79. Weller SA, Bailey D, Matthews S, Lumley S, Sweed A, Ready D, Eltringham G, Richards J, Vipond R, Lukaszewski R, Payne PM, Aarons E, Simpson AJ, Hutley EJ, Brooks T. 2016. Evaluation of the Biofire FilmArray Biothreat E-test (v2.5) for rapid identification of Ebola virus disease in heat-treated blood samples obtained in Sierra Leone and United Kingdom. J Clin Microbiol 54: 114-119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02287-15.
80. Southern TR, Racsa LD, Albarino CG, Fey PD, Hinrichs SH, Murphy CN, Herrera VL, Sambol AR, Hill CE, Ryan EL, Kraft S, Campbell Sealy TK, Schuh A, Ritchie JC, Lyon ML, III, Mehta AK, Varkey JB, Ribner BS, Brantly KP, Stroher U, Iwen PC, Burd EM. 2015. Comparison of FilmArray and quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR for detection of Zaire ebolavirus from contrived and clinical specimens. J Clin Microbiol 53: 2956-2960. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01317-15.
81. Leski TA, Ansumana R, Taitt CR, Lamin JM, Bangura U, Lahai J, Mbayo G, Kanneh MB, Bawo B, Bockarie AS, Scullion M, Phillips CL, Horner CP, Jacobsen KH, Stenger DA. 2015. Use of the FilmArray system for detection of Zaire Ebolavirus in a small hospital in Bo, Sierra Leone. J Clin Microbiol 53: 2368-2370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00527-15.
82. Magassouba N, Gay-Andrieu F, Picot V, Peyrefitte C, Dacosta B, Bedin F, Dore A, Kourouma F, Machuron J, Longuet C, Phillips C, Scullion M, Miller M. 2016. Clinical performance of the Filmarray Biothreat-E test for diagnosing Ebola virus disease in "alternate" specimen types: urine and saliva. Open Forum Infect Dis 2(Suppl 1):S103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ofid.ofv133.106.
83. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2015. Emergency use authorization, ReEBOV antigen rapid test; letter of authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov/Medical Devices/Safety/EmergencySituations/ucm161496.htm#ebola.
84. World Health Organization. 2015. Emergency use assessment and listing for Ebola virus disease IVDs, public report, product: ReEBOV antigen rapid test kit. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/diagnostics_laboratory/procurement/purchasing/en/.
85. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2015. Emergency use authorization, OraQuick Ebola rapid antigen test; letter of authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov /MedicalDevices/Safety/EmergencySituations/ucm161496.htm#ebola.
86. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2016. Emergency use authorization, OraQuick Ebola rapid antigen test; letter of authorization. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Rockville, MD. http://www.fda.gov /MedicalDevices/Safety/EmergencySituations/ucm161496.htm#ebola.
87. World Health Organization. 2016. Emergency use assessment and listing for Ebola virus disease IVDs; public report; product: OraQuick Ebola rapid antigen test kit (cadaveric oral fluid and whole blood). World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int /diagnostics_laboratory/procurement/purchasing/en/.
88. Huang JY, Louis FJ, Dixon MG, Sefu M, Kightlinger L, Martel LD, Jayaraman GC, Gueye AS. 2016. Baseline assessment of the use of Ebola rapid diagnostic tests: Forecariah, Guinea, October-November 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 65: 328-329. http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6512a4.
89. World Health Organization. 2015. Emergency use assessment and listing for Ebola virus disease IVDs, public report, product: SDQLine Ebola Zaire Ag. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/diagnostics_laboratory/procurement/purchasing/en/.
90. World Health Organization. 2014. Laboratory: how to safely collect blood samples from persons suspected to be infected with highly infectious blood-borne pathogens (e.g., Ebola). World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://who.int/csr/resources/publications/ebola /blood-collect-en.pdf.
91. World Health Organization. 2014. How to safely collect oral swabs (saliva) from deceased patients suspected to be infected with Ebola; interim guideline. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://who.int/csr/resources/publications/ebola/safely-collect-oral-swabs/en.pdf.
92. Freeman R, Codd AA, Selkon JB. 1982. Effect of beta-propriolactone in blood on routine haematological, biochemical, and serological investigations. Lancet 319: 1048-1049. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(82)92102-X.
93. Elliott LH, McCormick JB, Johnson KM. 1982. Inactivation of Lassa, Marburg, and Ebola viruses by gamma irradiation. J Clin Microbiol 16: 704-708.
94. Mitchell SW, McCormick JB. 1984. Physiochemical inactivation of Lassa, Ebola, and Marburg viruses and effect on clinical laboratory analyses. J Clin Microbiol 20: 486-489.
95. Smither SJ, Weller SA, Phelps A, Eastaugh L, Ngugi S, O’Brien LM, Steward J, Lonsdale SG, Lever MS. 2015. Buffer AVL alone does not inactivate Ebola virus in a representative clinical sample type. J Clin Microbiol 53: 3148-3154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01449-15.
96. Blow JA, Dohm DJ, Negley DL, Mores CN. 2004. Virus inactivation by nucleic acid extraction reagents. J Virol Methods 119: 195-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jviromet.2004.03.015.
97. Towner JS, Sealy TS, Ksiazek TG, Nichol ST. 2007. High-throughput molecular detection of hemorrhagic fever virus threats with applications for outbreak settings. J Infect Dis 196: S205-S212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/520601.
98. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2005. Interim guidance for managing patients with suspected viral hemorrhagic fever in U.S. hospitals. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
99. Lau R, Wang A, Chong-Kit A, Ralevski F, Boggild A. 2015. Evaluation of Ebola virus inactivation procedures for Plasmodium falciparum malaria diagnostics. J Clin Microbiol 53: 1387-1390. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00165-15.
100. Loutfy MR, Assmar M, Burgess DCH, Kain KC. 1998. Effects of viral hemorrhagic fever inactivation methods on the performance of rapid diagnostic tests for Plasmodium falciparum. J Infect Dis 178: 1852-1855. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/314524.
101. Cutts T, Cook B, Poliquin G, Strong J, Theriault S. 2016. Inactivating Zaire Ebolavirus in whole-blood thin smears used for malaria diagnosis. J Clin Microbiol 54: 1157-1159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02960-15.
102. Bhagat CI, Lewer M, Prins A, Beilby JP. 2000. Effects of heating plasma at 56°C for 30 min and at 60°C for 60 min on routine biochemistry analytes. Ann Clin Biochem 37: 802-804. http://dx.doi.org/10.1258/0004563001899997.
103. Hunt L, Gupta-Wright A, Simms V, Tamba F, Knott V, Tambu K, Heisenberg-Mansaray S, Tambu E, Sheriff A, Conteh S, Smith T, Tobin S, Brooks T, Houlihan C, Cummings R, Fletcher T. 2015. Clinical presentation, biochemical, and haematological parameters and their association with outcome in patients with Ebola virus disease: an observational cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis 15: 1292-1299. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(15)00144-9.
104. Chughtai AA, Barnes M, Macintyre CR. 2016. Persistence of Ebola virus in various body fluids during convalescence: evidence and implications for disease transmission and control. Epidemiol Infect 144: 1652-1660. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0950268816000054.
105. Thorson A, Formenty P, Lofthouse C, Broutet N. 2016. Systematic review of the literature on viral persistence and sexual transmission from recovered Ebola survivors: evidence and recommendations. BMJ Open 6: e008859. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2015-008859.
106. Emond RTD, Evans B, Bowen ETW, Lloyd G. 1977. A case of Ebola virus infection. Br Med J 2: 541-544. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.2.6086.541.
107. Richards G, Murphy S, Reeve J, Mer M, Zinman C, Taylor R, Swanepoel R, Duse A, Sharp G, De La Rey I, Kassianides C. 2000. Unexpected Ebola virus in a teriary care setting: clinical and epidemiological aspects. Crit Care Med 28: 240-244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00003246-200001000-00041.
108. Bausch DG, Towner JS, Dowell SF, Kaducu F, Lukwiya M, Sanchez A, Nichol ST, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE. 2007. Assessment of the risk of Ebola virus transmission from bodily fluids and fomites. J Infect Dis 196: S142-S147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/520545.
109. Deen GF, Knust B, Broutet N, Sesay FR, Formenty P, Ross C, Thorson AE, Massaquoi TA, Marrinan JE, Ervin E, Jambai A, McDonald SLR, Bernstein K, Wurie AH, Dumbuya MS, Abad N, Idriss B, Wi T, Bennett SD, Davies T, Ebrahim FK, Meites E, Naidoo D, Smith S, Banerjee A, Erickson BR, Brault A, Durski KN, Winter J, Sealy T, Nichol ST, Lamunu M, Stroher U, Morgan O, Sahr F. 14 October 2015. Ebola RNA persistence in semen of Ebola virus disease survivors: preliminary report. N Engl J Med http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1511410.
110. Green E, Hunt L, Ross JCG, Nissen NM, Curran T, Badhan A, Sutherland KA, Richards J, Lee JS, Allen SH, Laird S, Blackman M, Collocott I, Parker PA, Walbridge A, Phillips R, Sellu SJ, Dama A, Sheriff AK, Sombo J, Ngegba D, Wurie AH, Checchi F, Brooks TJ. 16 May 2016. Viraemia and Ebola virus secretion in survivors of Ebola virus disease in Sierra Leone: a cross-sectional cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(16)30060-3.
111. Sprecher A. 14 October 2015. Handle survivors with care. N Engl J Med http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMe1512928.
112. Mate SE, Kugelman JR, Nyenswah TG, Ladner JT, Wiley MR, Cordier-Lassalle T, Christie A, Schroth GP, Gross SM, Davies-Wayne GJ, Shinde SA, Murugan R, Sieh SB, Badio M, Fakoli L, Tawey F, de Wit E, van Doremalen N, Munster VJ, Pettitt J, Prieto K, Humrighouse BW, Stroher U, DiClaro JW, Hensley LE, Schoepp RJ, Safronetz D, Fair J, Kuhn JH, Lackley DJ, Laney AS, Williams DE, Lo T, Gasasira A, Nichol ST, Formenty P, Kateh FN, De Cock KM, Bolay F, Sanchez-Lockhart M, Palacios G. 2015. Molecular evidence of sexual transmission of Ebola virus. N Engl J Med 373: 2448-2454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1509773.
113. World Health Organization. 2015. Criteria for declaring the end of the Ebola outbreak in Guinea, Liberia or Sierra Leone. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola /declaration-ebola-end/en/.
114. World Health Organization. 2016. Clinical care for survivors of Ebola virus disease; interim guidance; updated April 2016. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://www.who.int/csr/resources /publications/ebola/guidance-survivors/en/.
115. Pettitt J, Higgs ES, Adams RD, Jahrling PB, Hensley LE. 2016. Use of existing diagnostic reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction assays for detection of Ebola virus RNA in semen. J Infect Dis 213: 1237-1239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiv454.
116. Kreuels B, Wichmann D, Emmerich P, Schmidt-Chanasit J, de Heer G, Kluge S, Sow A, Renne T, Cunther S, Lohse AW, Addo MM, Schmiedel S. 2014. A case of severe Ebola virus infection complicated by gram-negative septicemia. N Engl J Med 371: 2394-2401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1411677.
117. Varkey JB, Shantha JG, Crozier I, Kraft CS, Lyon M, Mehta AK, Kumar G, Smith JR, Kainulainen MH, Whitmer S, Stroher U, Uyeki TM, Ribner BS, Yeh S. 2015. Persistence of Ebola virus in ocular fluid during convalescence. N Engl J Med 372: 2423-2427. http://dx.doi.org /10.1056/NEJMoa1500306.
118. Mora-Rillo M, Arsuaga M, Ramirez-olivencia G, de la Calle F, Borobia AM, Sanchez-Seco P, Lago M, Figueira JC, Fernandez-Puntero B, Viejo A, Negredo A, Nunez C, Flores E, Carcas AJ, Jimenez-Yuste V, Lasala F, Garcia-de Lorenzo A, Arnalich F, Arribas JR. 2015. Acute respiratory distress syndrome after convalescent plasma use: treatment of a patient with Ebola virus disease contracted in Madrid, Spain. Lancet Respir Med 3: 554-562. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(15)00180-0.
119. Baggi FM, Taybi A, Kurth A, Van Herp M, Di Caro A, Wolfel R, Gunther S, Decroo T, Declerch H, Jonckheere. 2014. Management of pregnant women infected with Ebola virus in a treatment centre in Guinea, June 2014. Euro Surveill 19: pii-20983. http://dx.doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES2014.19.49.20983.
120. Hoenen T, Groseth A, Rosenke K, Fischer RJ, Hoenen A, Judson SD, Martellaro C, Falzarano D, Marzi A, Squires RB, Wollenberg KR, de Wit E, Prescott J, Safronetz D, van Doremalen N, Bushmaker T, Feldmann F, McNally K, Bolay FK, Fields B, Sealy T, Rayfield M, Nichol ST, Zoon KC, Massaquoi M, Munster VJ, Feldmann H. 2016. Nanopore sequencing as a rapidly deployable Ebola outbreak tool. Emerg Infect Dis 22: 331-334. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2202.151796.
121. Gire SK, Goba A, Andersen KG, Sealfon RSG, Park DJ, Kanneh L, Jalloh S, Momoh M, Fullah M, Dudas G, Wohl S, Moses L, Yozwiak NL, Winnicki S, Matranga CB, Malboeuf CM, Qu J, Gladden AD, Schaffner SF, Yang Z, Jiang P, Nekoui M, Colubri A, Coomber MR, Fonnie M, Moigboi A, Gbakie M, Kamara FK, Tucher V, Konuwa E, Saffa S, Sellu J, Jalloh A, Kovoma A, Joninga J, Mustapha I, Kargbo K, Foday M, Yillah M, Kanneh F, Robert W, Massally JLB, Chapman SB, Bochicchio J, Murphy C, Musbaum C, Young S, Birren BW, Grant DS, Scheiffelin JS, Lander ES, Happi C, Gevao SM, Gnirke A, Rambaut A, Garry RF, Khan SH, Sabeti PC. 2014. Genomic surveillance elucidates Ebola virus origin and transmission during the 2014 outbreak. Science 345: 1369-1372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1259657.
122. Tong Y, Shi W, Liu D, Qian J, Liang L, Bo X, Liu J, Ren H, Fan H, Ni M, Sun Y, Jin Y, Teng Y, Li Z, Kargbo D, Dafae F, Kanu A, Chen C, Lan Z, Jiang H, Luo Y, Lu H, Zhang X, Yang F, Hu Y, Cao Y, Deng Y, Su H, Sun Y, Lui W, Want Z, Wang C, Bu A, Guo Z, Zhang L, Nie W, Bai C, Sun C, An Z, Zu P, Zhang Z, Huang Y, Mi Z, Yu D, Yao H, Feng Y, Xia Z, Zheng X, Yang S, Lu B, Jiang J, Karbo B, He F, Gao G, Cao W. 2015. Genetic diversity and evolutionary dynamics of Ebola virus in Sierra Leone. Nature 524: 93-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature14490.
123. Park DJ, Dudas G, Wohl S, Goba A, Whitmer SLM, Andersen KG, Sealfon RS, Ladner ST, Kugelman JR, Matranga CB, Winnicki SM, Qu J, Gire S, Gladden-Young A, Jalloh S, Nosamiefan D, Yozwiak NL, Moses LM, Jiang P, Lin A, Schaffner SF, Bird B, Towner J, Mamoh M, Gbakie M, Kanneh L, Kargbo D, Massally JLB, Kamara FK, Konuwa E, Sellu J, Jalloh AA, Mustapha I, Foday M, Yillah M, Erickson BR, Sealy T, Blau D, Paddock C, Brault A, Amman B, Basile J, Bearden S, Belser J, Bergeron E, Campbell S, Chakrabarti A, Didd K, et al. 2015. Ebola virus epidemiology, transmission, and evolution during seven months in Sierra Leone. Cell 161: 1516-1526. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.06.007.
124. Carroll MW, Matthews DA, Hiscox JA, Elmore MJ, Pollakis G, Rambaut A, Hewson R, Garcia-Dorival I, Bore JA, Koundouno R, Abdellati S, Afrough B, Aiyepada J, Akhilomen P, Asogun D, Atkinson B, Badusche M, Bah A, Bate S, Baumann J, Becker D, Becker-Ziaja B, Bocquin A, Borremans B, Bosworth A, Boettcher J, Cannas A, Carletti F, Castilletti C, Clark S, Colavita F, Diederich S, Donatus A, Duraffour S, Ehichioya D, Ellerbrok H, Fernandez-Garcia MD, Fizet A, Fleischmann E, Gryseels S, Hermelink A, Hinzmann J, Hopf-Guevara U, Ighodalo Y, Jameson L, Kelterbaum A, Kis Z, Kloth S, et al. 2015. Temporal and spatial analysis of the 2014-2015 Ebola virus outbreak in West Africa. Nature 524: 97-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature14594.
125. Kugelman JR, Wiley MR, Mate S, Ladner JT, Beitzel B, Fakoli L, Taweh F, Prieto K, Diclaro JW, Minogue T, Schoepp RJ, Schaecher KE, Pettitt J, Bateman S, Fair J, Kuhn JH, Hensley L, Park DJ, Sebeti PC, Sanchez-Lockhart M, Bolay FK, Palacios G. 2015. Monitoring of Ebola virus Makona evolution through establishment of advanced genomic capability in Liberia. Emerg Infect Dis 21: 1135-1143. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid2107.150522.
126. Greninger AL, Naccache SN, Federman S, Yu G, Mbala P, Bres V, Stryke D, Bouquet J, Somasekar S, Linnen JM, Dodd R, Mulembakani P, Schneider BS, Muyembe-Tamfum J, Stramer SL, Chiu C. 2015. Rapid metagenomic identification of viral pathogens in clinical samples by real-time nanopore sequencing analysis. Genome Med 7: 99-112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13073-015-0220-9.
127. Nouvellet P, Garske T, Mills HL, Nedjati-Gilani G, Hinsley W, Blake IM, Van Kerkhove MD, Cori A, Dorigatti I, Jombart T, Riley S, Fraser C, Donnelly CA, Ferguson NM. 2015. The role of rapid diagnostics in managing Ebola epidemics. Nature 528: S109-S116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature16041.
128. Walker NF, Brown CS, Youkee D, Baker P, Williams N, Kalawa A, Russell K, Samba AF, Bentley N, Koroma F, King MB, Parker BE, Thompson M, Boyles T, Healey B, Kargbo B, Bash-Taqi D, Simpson AJ, Kamara A, Kamara TB, Lado M, Johnson O, Brooks T. 2015. Evaluation of a point-of-care blood test for identification of Ebola virus disease at Ebola holding units, Western Area, Sierra Leone, January to February 2015. Euro Surveill 20: pii-21073. http://dx.doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES2015.20.12.21073.
129. Baca JT, Severns V, Lovato D, Branch DW, Larson RS. 2015. Rapid detection of Ebola virus with a reagent-free point-of-care biosensor. Sensors 15: 8605-8614. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s150408605.
130. Yen C, Puig H, Tam JO, Gomez-Marquez J, Bosch I, Hamad-Schifferli K, Gehrke L. 2015. Multicolored silver nanoparticles for multiplexed disease diagnostics: distinguishing dengue, yellow fever, and Ebola viruses. Lab Chip 15: 1638-1641. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c5lc00055f.
131. Kurosaki Y, Magassouba N, Oloniniyi OK, Cherif MS, Sakabe S, Takada A, Hirayama K, Yasuda J. 2016. Development and evaluation of reverse transcription-loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RTLAMP) assay coupled with a portable device for rapid diagnosis of Ebola virus disease in Guinea. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 10: e0004472. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004472.
132. World Health Organization. 2016. WHO Ebola situation report, 30 March 2016. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. http://apps.who.int/ebola/current-situation/ebola-situation-report-30-march-2016.