Brazil’s Amazonian forest carbon: the key to Southern Amazonia’s significance for global climate

Regional Environmental Change

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2018, Pages 47-61

  Fearnside, Philip M ^a  

^a INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE PESQUISAS DA AMAZÔNIA   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Amazonia; Biomass; Brazil; Carbon; Greenhouse gas emissions; Soil carbon

Indexed keywords

EID: 84978149808     PISSN: 14363798     EISSN: 1436378X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10113-016-1007-2     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Aguiar APD, Ometto JP, Nobre C, Lapola DM, Almeida C, Vieira IC, Soares JV, Alvala R, Saatchi S, Valeriano D, Castilla-Rubio JC (2012) Modeling the spatial and temporal heterogeneity of deforestation-driven carbon emissions: the INPE-EM framework applied to the Brazilian Amazon. Global Change Biol 18(11):3346–3366. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02782.x
2. Arraut JM, Nobre CA, Barbosa HM, Obregon G, Marengo JA (2012) Aerial rivers and lakes: looking at large-scale moisture transport and its relation to Amazonia and to subtropical rainfall in South America. J Clim 25:543–556. doi:10.1175/2011JCLI41891
3. Asner GP et al (2012) High-resolution mapping of forest carbon stocks in the Colombian Amazon. Biogeosciences 9:2683–2696. doi:10.5194/bg-9-2683-2012
4. Assunção J, Gandour CC, Rocha R (2015) Deforestation slowdown in the Legal Amazon: prices or policies? Environ Dev Econ 20(6):697–722. doi:10.1017/S1355770X15000078
5. Baccini A, Goetz SJ, Walker WS, Laporte NT, Sun M, Sulla-Menashe D, Hackler J, Beck PSA, Dubayah R, Friedl MA, Samanta S, Houghton RA (2012) Estimated carbon dioxide emissions from tropical deforestation improved by carbon-density maps. Nat Clim Change 2:182–185. doi:10.1038/nclimate1354
6. Balch JK, Nepstad DC, Brando PM, Curran LM, Portela O, de Carvalho Jr O, Lefebvre P (2008) Negative fire feedback in a transitional forest of southeastern Amazonia. Global Change Biol 14:1–12. doi:10.1111/j1365-2486200801655x
7. Barbosa RI, dos Santos JRS, da Cunha MS, Pimentel T, Fearnside PM (2012) Root biomass, root: shoot ratio and belowground carbon stocks in the open savannahs of Roraima, Brazilian Amazonia. Aust J Bot 60(5):383–395. doi:10.1071/BT11312
8. Barlow J, Peres CA (2006) Consequences of cryptic and recurring fire disturbances for ecosystem structure and biodiversity in Amazonian forests. In: Laurance WF, Peres CA (eds) Emerging threats to tropical forests. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 225–240
9. Barlow J, Peres CA, Lagan BO, Haugaasen T (2003) Large tree mortality and the decline of forest biomass following Amazonian wildfires. Ecol Lett 6:6–8. doi:10.1046/j.1461-0248.2003.00394.x
10. Bellamy PH, Loveland PJ, Bradley RI, Lark RM, Kirk GJD (2005) Carbon losses from all soils across England and Wales 1978–2003. Nature 437:245–248. doi:10.1038/nature04038
11. Berenguer E, Ferreira J, Gardner TA, Aragão LEOC, de Camargo PB, Cerri CE, Durigan M, de Oliveira Junior RC, Vieira ICG, Barlow J (2014) A large-scale field assessment of carbon stocks in human-modified tropical forests. Global Change Biol 20(12):3713–3726. doi:10.1111/gcb.12627
12. Brazil, IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística) (2012) Manual técnico da vegetação brasileira: sistema fitogeográfico, inventário das formações florestais e campestres, técnicas e manejo de coleções botânicas, procedimentos para mapeamentos, 2a ed. IBGE, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
13. Brazil, INPE (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais) (2015) Projeto PRODES: monitoramento da floresta amazônica brasileira por satélite. INPE, São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil. http://www.obt.inpe.br/prodes/
14. Brazil, MCT (Ministério de Ciência e Tecnologia) (2004) Brazil’s initial national communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. MCT, Brasília, DF, Brazil. http://www.mct.gov.br/upd_blob/0005/5142.pdf
15. Brazil, MCT (Ministério de Ciência e Tecnologia) (2010) Second national communication of Brazil to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. MCT, Brasília, DF, Brazil, 2 vols. http://www.mct.gov.br/upd_blob/0214/214078pdf and http://www.mct.gov.br/upd_blob/0214/214079.pdf
16. Brazil, MMA (Ministério do Meio Ambiente) (2008) Fundo Amazônia. MMA, Brasília, DF, Brazil. http://www.mma.gov.br/estruturas/sfb/_arquivos/fundo_amazonia_2008_95.pdf
17. Brazil, MMA (Ministério do Meio Ambiente) (2014a) Report of the technical assessment of the proposed forest reference emission level of Brazil submitted in 2014. FCCC/TAR/2014/BRA. http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2014/tar/bra01.pdf
18. Brazil, MMA (Ministério do Meio Ambiente), MCTI (Ministério de Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação) (2014b) Brazil’s submission of a Forest Reference Emission Level (FREL) for reducing emissions from deforestation in the Amazonia biome for REDD + results-based payments under the UNFCCC. MMA, Brasília, DF, Brazil. http://redd.mma.gov.br/images/Publicacoes/FREL_Complete_October31_FINAL.pdf
19. Brazil, Projeto RADAMBRASIL (1973–1983) Levantamento de recursos naturais. Ministério das Minas e Energia, Departamento Nacional de Produção Mineral, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 36 vols
20. Brienen RJW et al (2015) Long-term decline of the Amazon carbon sink. Nature 519:344–348. doi:10.1038/nature14283
21. Brown S, Lugo AE (1984) Biomass of tropical forests: a new estimate based on forest volumes. Science 223:1290–1293. doi:10.1126/science.223.4642.1290
22. Brown S, Lugo AE (1992) Aboveground biomass estimates for tropical moist forests of the Brazilian Amazon. Interciencia 17(1):8–18
23. Cairns MA, Brown S, Helmer EH, Baumgardner GA (1997) Root biomass allocation in the world’s upland forests. Oecologia 111:1–11. doi:10.1007/s004420050201
24. Cerri CC, Bernoux M, Arrouays D, Feigl BJ, Piccolo MC (2000) Carbon stocks in soils of the Brazilian Amazon. In: Lal R, Kimble JM, Stewart BA (eds) Global climate change and tropical ecosystems. Advances in soil science. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 33–50
25. Chao KJ, Phillips OL, Baker TR (2008) Wood density and stocks of coarse woody debris in a northwestern Amazonian landscape. Can J For Res 38:267–276. doi:10.1139/X07-163
26. Chao KJ, Phillips OL, Baker TR, Peacock J, Lopez-Gonzalez G, Martínez RV, Monteagudo A, Torres-Lezama A (2009) After trees die: quantities and determinants of necromass across Amazonia. Biogeosciences 6:1615–1626. doi:10.5194/bg-6-1615-2009
27. Chave J, Muller-Landau HC, Baker TR, Easdale TA, ter Steege H, Webb CO (2006) Regional and phylogenetic variation of wood density across 2,456 neotropical tree species. Ecol Appl 16(6):2356–2367. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[2356:RAPVOW]2.0.CO;2
28. Chave J et al (2014) Improved allometric models to estimate the aboveground biomass of tropical trees. Global Change Biol 20(10):3177–3190. doi:10.1111/gcb.12629
29. Clark DA (2002) Are tropical forests an important carbon sink? Reanalysis of the long-term plot data. Ecol Appl 12:3–7. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2002)012[0003:ATFAIC]2.0.CO;2
30. Clark DB, Clark DA (2000) Landscape-scale variation in forest structure and biomass in a tropical rain forest. For Ecol Manag 137:185–198. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(99)00327-8
31. Conant RT, Drijber RA, Haddix ML, Parton WJ, Paul EA, Plante AF, Six J, Steinweg JM (2008) Sensitivity of organic matter decomposition to warming varies with its quality. Global Change Biol 14:868–877. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01541.x
32. COPPE (Programas de Pós-Graduação de Engenharia) (2005) Inventário de emissões de gases de efeito estufa do município de São Paulo: síntese. Prefeitura de São Paulo, Centro de Estudos Integrados sobre Meio Ambiente e Mudanças Climáticas, COPPE, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil. http://www.prefeitura.sp.gov.br/cidade/secretarias/upload/sintesedoinventario_1250796710.pdf. Accessed 1 Jan 2016
33. Correia FWS, Alvalá RCS, Manzi AO (2006) Impacto das modificações da cobertura vegetal no balanço de água na Amazônia: um estudo com modelo de circulação geral da atmosfera (MCGA). Rev Bras Meteorol 21(3a):153–167
34. Craine JM, Fierer N, McLauchan KK (2010) Widespread coupling between the rate and temperature sensitivity of organic matter decay. Nat Geosci 3:854–857. doi:10.1038/ngeo1009
35. da Silva RP (2007) Alometria, estoque e dinâmica da biomassa de florestas primárias e secundárias na região de Manaus (AM). PhD Thesis in tropical forest sciences Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. https://wwwinpagovbr/arquivos/Tese_Biomassa_Roseana_Silvapdf
36. Davidson EA, Janssens IA (2006) Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change. Nature 440:165–173. doi:10.1038/nature04514
37. de Castilho CV, Magnusson WE, de Araújo RNO, Luizão RCC, Luizão FJ, Lima AP, Higuchi N (2006) Variation in aboveground tree live biomass in a central Amazonian forest: effects of soil and topography. For Ecol Manag 234:85–96. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.06.024
38. de Lima MIC (2008) Projeto RADAM: uma saga amazônica. Paka-Tatu, Belém, Pará, Brazil
39. de Marques JDO, Luizão FJ, Teixeira WG, Sarrazin M, Ferreira SJF, Beldini TP, de Marques EMA (2015) Distribution of organic carbon in different soil fractions in ecosystems of central Amazonia. Rev Bras Ciên Solo 39:232–242. doi:10.1590/01000683rbcs20150142
40. de Miranda SC, Bustamante M, Palace M, Hagen S, Keller M, Ferreira LG (2014) Regional variations in biomass distribution in Brazilian savanna woodland. Biotropica 46(2):125–138. doi:10.1111/btp12095
41. Egler M, Egler CAG, Franz B, de Araujo MSM, de Freitas MAV (2013) Indicators of deforestation in the Southern Brazilian Pre-Amazon. Reg Environ Change 13:263–271. doi:10.1007/s10113-012-0331-4
42. Fauset S et al (2015) Hyperdominance in Amazonian forest carbon cycling. Nat Commun 6:6857. doi:10.1038/ncomms7857
43. Fearnside PM (1990) The rate and extent of deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia. Environ Conserv 17(3):213–226. doi:10.1017/S0376892900032355
44. Fearnside PM (1992) Forest biomass in Brazilian Amazonia: comments on the estimate by Brown and Lugo. Interciencia 17(1):19–27
45. 2: Uma Nova Oportunidade de Negócios para o Brasil. Companhia Vale do Rio Doce (CVRD), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, pp 95–124
46. Fearnside PM (1995) Global warming response options in Brazil’s forest sector: comparison of project-level costs and benefits. Biomass Bioenergy 8(5):309–322. doi:10.1016/0961-9534(95)00024-0
47. Fearnside PM (1996) Amazonian deforestation and global warming: carbon stocks in vegetation replacing Brazil’s Amazon forest. For Ecol Manag 80(1–3):21–34. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(95)03647-4
48. Fearnside PM (1997a) Greenhouse gases from deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: net committed emissions. Clim Change 35(3):321–360. doi:10.1023/A:1005336724350
49. Fearnside PM (1997b) Wood density for estimating forest biomass in Brazilian Amazonia. For Ecol Manag 90(1):59–89. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(96)03840-6
50. Fearnside PM (1997c) Environmental services as a strategy for sustainable development in rural Amazonia. Ecol Econ 20(1):53–70. doi:10.1016/S0921-8009(96)00066-3
51. Fearnside PM (1999) Biodiversity as an environmental service in Brazil’s Amazonian forests: risks, value and conservation. Environ Conserv 26(4):305–321. doi:10.1017/S0376892999000429
52. Fearnside PM (2000a) Greenhouse gas emissions from land-use change in Brazil’s Amazon region. In: Lal R, Kimble JM, Stewart BA (eds) Global climate change and tropical ecosystems. Advances in soil science. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 231–249
53. Fearnside PM (2000b) Uncertainty in land-use change and forestry sector mitigation options for global warming: plantation silviculture versus avoided deforestation. Biomass Bioenergy 18(6):457–468. doi:10.1016/S0961-9534(00)00003-9
54. Fearnside PM (2001) Effects of land use and forest management on the carbon cycle in the Brazilian Amazon. J Sustain For 12(1–2):79–97. doi:10.1300/J091v12n01_05
55. Fearnside PM (2004) A água de São Paulo e a floresta amazônica. Ciên Hoje 34(203):63–65
56. Fearnside PM (2005) Deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: history, rates and consequences. Conserv Biol 19(3):680–688. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00697.x
57. Fearnside PM (2008a) The roles and movements of actors in the deforestation of Brazilian Amazonia. Ecol Soc 13(1):23. http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol13/iss1/art23/
58. Fearnside PM (2008b) Amazon forest maintenance as a source of environmental services. Anais Acad Bras Ciên 80(1):101–114. doi:10.1590/S0001-37652008000100006
59. Fearnside PM (2010) Estoque e estabilidade do carbono nos solos na Amazônia brasileira. In: Teixeira W, Kern DC, Madari BC, Lima HN, Woods WI (eds) As terras pretas de índio da Amazônia: sua caracterização e uso deste conhecimento na criação de novas áreas. Editora da Universidade Federal do Amazonas (EDUA) & Embrapa Amazônia Ocidental, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil, pp 259–263
60. Fearnside PM (2012) Brazil’s Amazon forest in mitigating global warming: unresolved controversies. Clim Policy 12(1):70–81. doi:10.1080/146930622011581571
61. Fearnside PM (2013a) Serviços ambientais provenientes de florestas intactas, degradadas e secundárias na Amazônia brasileira. In: Peres CA, Gardner TA, Barlow J, Vieira ICG (eds) Conservação da biodiversidade em paisagens antropizadas do Brasil. Editora da Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, pp 26–57
62. Fearnside PM (2013b) What is at stake for Brazilian Amazonia in the climate negotiations? Clim Change 118(3):509–519. doi:10.1007/s10584-012-0660-9
63. Fearnside PM (2015) Natural riches of Amazonia, deforestation and its consequences. Global Land Project News 12:22–25. http://www.globallandproject.org/arquivos/GLPNews_Nov2015.pdf
64. Fearnside PM (2016) The impact of land use on carbon stocks and fluxes: implications for policy (Chapter 16). In: Nagy L, Forsberg B, Artaxo P (eds) Interactions between biosphere, atmosphere and human land use in the Amazon Basin. Springer (Ecological Studies No. 227), Heidleberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-49902-3_16
65. Fearnside PM, Barbosa RI (1998) Soil carbon changes from conversion of forest to pasture in Brazilian Amazonia. For Ecol Manag 108:147–166. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(98)00222-9
66. Fearnside PM, Guimarães WM (1996) Carbon uptake by secondary forests in Brazilian Amazonia. For Ecol Manag 80(1–3):35–46. doi:10.1016/0378-1127(95)03648-2
67. Fearnside PM, Laurance WF (2004) Tropical deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions. Ecol Appl 14(4):982–986. doi:10.1890/03-5225
68. Fearnside PM, Righi CA, Graça PMLA, Keizer EWH, Cerri CC, Nogueira EM, Barbosa RI (2009) Biomass and greenhouse-gas emissions from land-use change in Brazil’s Amazonian “arc of deforestation”: the states of Mato Grosso and Rondônia. For Ecol Manag 258:1968–1978. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.07.042
69. Fearnside PM, Yanai AM, Vitel CSMN (2014) Modeling baselines for REDD projects in Amazonia: Is the carbon real? In: Gerold G, Jungkunst HF, Wantzen KM, Schönenberg, Amorim RSS, Couto EG, Madari B, Hohnwald S (eds) Interdisciplinary analysis and modeling of carbon-optimized land management strategies for Southern Amazonia. Univerditätsdrucke Göttingen, Göttingen, pp 19–28
70. Feldpausch TR et al (2011) Height-diameter allometry of tropical forest trees. Biogeosciences 8:1081–1106. doi:10.5194/bg-8-1081-2011
71. Feldpausch TR et al (2012) Tree height integrated into pan-tropical forest biomass estimates. Biogeosciences 9(8):3381–3403. doi:10.5194/bg-9-1-2012
72. Figueiredo EO (2014) Modelagem Biométrica para Árvores Individuais a partir do LiDAR em Área de Manejo de Precisão em Florestas Tropicais na Amazônia Ocidental. PhD thesis in tropical forest sciences, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
73. Fu R, Yin L, Li W, Arias PA, Dickinson RE, Huang L, Fernandes K, Liebmann B, Fisher R, Myneni RB (2013) Increased dry-season length over southern Amazonia in recent decades and its implication for future climate projection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110:18110–18115. doi:10.1073/pnas.1302584110
74. Fujisaki K, Perrin A-S, Desjardins T, Bernoux M, Balbino LC, Brossard M (2015) From forest to cropland and pasture systems: a critical review of soil organic carbon stocks changes in Amazonia. Global Change Biol 21:2773–2786. doi:10.1111/gcb.12906
75. Gerwing JJ (2002) Degradation of forests through logging and fire in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. For Ecol Manag 157:131–141. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(00)00644-7
76. Goetz SJ, Baccini A, Laporte NT, Johns T, Walker W, Kellndorfer J, Houghton RA, Sun M (2009) Mapping and monitoring carbon stocks with satellite observations: a comparison of methods. Carbon Bal Manag 4:2. doi:10.1186/1750-0680-4-2
77. Haugaasen T, Barlow J, Peres CA (2003) Surface wildfires in central Amazonia: short-term impact on forest structure and carbon loss. For Ecol Manag 179:321–331. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(02)00548-0
78. Higuchi N, dos Santos J, Ribeiro RJ, Minette YB (1998) Biomassa da parte aérea da vegetação da floresta tropical úmida de terra-firme da Amazônia brasileira. Acta Amazon 28(2):153–166. doi:10.1590/1809-43921998282166
79. Houghton RA, Lawrence KT, Hackler JL, Brown S (2001) The spatial distribution of forest biomass in the Brazilian Amazon: a comparison of estimates. Global Change Biol 7:731–746. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2001.00426.x
80. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2013) Summary for policymakers. In: Stocker TF, Qin D, Plattner G-K, Tignor M, Allen SK, Boschung J, Nauels A, Xia Y, Bex V, Midgley PM (eds) Climate change 2013: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fifth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 3–29
81. Jordan C, Uhl C (1978) Biomass of a tierra firme forest of the Amazon Basin. Oecol Plant 13:387–400
82. Keller M, Palace M, Asner GP, Pereira R, Silva JNM (2004) Coarse woody debris in undisturbed and logged forests in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. Global Change Biol 10:784–795. doi:10.1111/j1529-8817200300770x
83. Klinge H, Rodrigues WA (1973) Biomass estimation in a central Amazonian rain forest. Acta Cient Venez 24:225–237
84. Klinge H, Rodrigues WA, Brunig E, Fittkau EJ (1975) Biomass and structure in a Central Amazonian rain forest. In: Golley F, Medina E (eds) Tropical ecological systems: trends in terrestrial and aquatic research. Springer, New York, pp 115–122. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-88533-4_9
85. Laurance WF, Fearnside PM, Laurance SG, Delamonica P, Lovejoy TE, Rankin-de Merona JM, Chambers JQ, Gascon C (1999) Relationship between soils on Amazon forest biomass: a landscape-scale study. For Ecol Manag 118(1–3):127–138. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(98)00494-0
86. Lehmann J, Kleber M (2015) The contentious nature of soil organic matter. Nature 528:60–68. doi:10.1038/nature16069
87. Lewis SL, Phillips OL, Baker TR, Lloyd J, Malhi Y, Almeida S, Higuchi N, Laurance WF, Neill D, Silva N, Terborgh J, Lezama AT, Vásquez MR, Brown S, Chave J, Kuebler C, Núñez P, Vinceti B (2004) Concerted changes in tropical forest structure and dynamics: evidence from 50 South American long term plots. Philos Trans R Soc Ser B 359:421–436. doi:10.1098/rstb.2003.1431
88. Lima AJN, Suwa R, de Mello Ribeiro GHP, Kajimoto T, dos Santos J, da Silva RP, De Souza CAS, de Barros PC, Noguchi H, Ishizuka M, Higuchi N (2012) Allometric models for estimating above- and below-ground biomass in Amazonian forests at São Gabriel da Cachoeira in the upper Rio Negro, Brazil. For Ecol Manag 277:163–172. doi:10.1016/jforeco201204028
89. Maia SMF, Ogle SM, Cerri CEP, Cerri CC (2009) Effect of grassland management on soil carbon sequestration in Rondônia and Mato Grosso states, Brazil. Geoderma 149:84–91. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.11.023
90. Maia SMF, Ogle SM, Cerri CC, Cerri CEP (2010) Changes in soil organic carbon storage under different agricultural management systems in the Southwest Amazon Region of Brazil. Soil Till Res 106:177–184. doi:10.1016/j.still.2009.12.005
91. Malhi Y et al (2006) The regional variation of aboveground live biomass in old-growth Amazonian forest. Global Change Biol 12:1–32. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01120.x
92. Marengo JA, Espinoza JC (2016) Extreme seasonal droughts and floods in Amazonia: causes, trends and impacts. Int J Climatol 36:1033–1050. doi:10.1002/joc.4420
93. Martins DL, Schietti J, Feldpausch TR, Luizão FJ, Phillips O, Andrade A, Castillho C, Laurance S, Oliveira A, Amaral I, Toledo JJ, Lugli L, Oblitas E, Purri J, Quesada CA (2014) Soil-induced impacts on forest structure drive coarse woody debris stocks across central Amazonia. Plant Ecol Divers 7(1–2):1–13. doi:10.1080/175508742013879942
94. Mitchard ETA et al (2014) Markedly divergent estimates of Amazon forest carbon density from ground plots and satellites. Global Ecol Biogeogr 23:935–946. doi:10.1111/geb12168
95. Moraes JL, Cerri CC, Melillo JM, Kicklighter D, Neil C, Skole DL, Steudler PA (1995) Soil carbon stocks of the Brazilian Amazon Basin. Soil Sci Soc Am J 59:244–247. doi:10.2136/sssaj1995.03615995005900010038x
96. Myers N (1989) Deforestation rates in tropical forests and their climatic implications. Friends of the Earth, London
97. Myers N (1991) Tropical forests: present status and future outlook. Clim Change 19(1–2):2–32. doi:10.1007/BF00142209
98. Nascimento HEM, Laurance WF (2002) Total aboveground biomass in central Amazonian rainforests: a landscape-scale study. For Ecol Manag 168:311–321. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00749-6
99. Nogueira EM, Fearnside PM, Nelson BW, França MB (2007) Wood density in forests of Brazil’s ‘arc of deforestation’: implications for biomass and flux of carbon from land-use change in Amazonia. For Ecol Manag 248(3):119–135. doi:10.1016/jforeco200704047
100. Nogueira EM, Fearnside PM, Nelson BW (2008a) Normalization of the wood density data used in estimates of above-ground live biomass in Amazon forests. For Ecol Manag 256(5):990–996. doi:10.1016/jforeco200806001
101. Nogueira EM, Fearnside PM, Nelson BW, Barbosa RI, Keizer EWH (2008b) Estimates of forest biomass in the Brazilian Amazon: new allometric equations and adjustments to biomass from wood-volume inventories. For Ecol Manag 256(11):1853–1857. doi:10.1016/jforeco200807022
102. Nogueira EM, Nelson BW, Fearnside PM, França MB, de Oliveira ÁCA (2008c) Tree height in Brazil’s “arc of deforestation”: shorter trees in south and southwest Amazonia imply lower biomass. For Ecol Manag 255:2963–2972. doi:10.1016/jforeco200802002
103. Nogueira EM, Yanai AM, Fonseca FOR, Fearnside PM (2015) Carbon stock loss from deforestation through 2013 in Brazilian Amazonia. Global Change Biol 21:1271–1292. doi:10.1111/gcb12798
104. Palace M, Keller M, Hurtt G, Frolking S (2012) A review of above ground necromass in tropical forests. In: Sudarshana P (ed) Tropical forests. InTech, Rijeka, Croatia, pp 216–252. http://cdnintechopencom/pdfs-wm/31970pdf
105. Perrin A-S, Fujisaki K, Petitjean C, Sarrazin M, Godet M, Garric B, Horth J-C, Balbino LC, Silveira Filho A, Machado PLOA, Brossard M (2014) Conversion of forest to agriculture in Amazonia with the chop-and-mulch method: does it improve the soil carbon stock? Agric Ecosyst Environ 184:101–114. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2013.11.009
106. Pfeifer M, Lefebvre V, Turner E, Cusack J, Khoo MS, Chey VK, Peni M, Ewers RM (2015) Deadwood biomass: an underestimated carbon stock in degraded tropical forests? Environ Res Lett 10:044019. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044019
107. Phillips OL, Malhi Y, Vinceti B, Baker T, Lewis SL, Higuchi N, Laurance WF, Núñez VP, Vásquez MR, Laurance S, Ferreira LV, Stern M, Brown S, Grace J (2002) Changes in growth of tropical forests: evaluating potential biases. Ecol Appl 12:576–587. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2002)012[0576:CIGOTF]2.0.CO;2
108. Phillips OL et al (2009) Drought sensitivity of the Amazon rainforest. Science 323:1344–1347. doi:10.1126/science.1164033
109. Russell CE (1983) Nutrient cycling and productivity of native and plantation forests at Jari Florestal, Pará, Brazil. PhD thesis in ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
110. Saatchi SS, Houghton RA, dos Santos Alvala RC, Soares JV, Yu Y (2007) Distribution of aboveground live biomass in the Amazon Basin. Global Change Biol 13:816–837. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01323.x
111. Saatchi SS, Marlier M, Chazdon RL, Clark DB, Russell AE (2011) Impact of spatial variability of tropical forest structure on radar estimation of aboveground biomass. Rem Sens Environ 115:2836–2849. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2010.07.015
112. Salati E (2001) Mudanças climáticas e o ciclo hidrológico na Amazônia. In: Fleischresser V (ed) Causas e dinâmica do desmatamento na Amazônia. Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Brasília, pp 153–172
113. Schulze ED, Freibauer A (2005) Unlocking carbon from soils. Nature 237:205–206. doi:10.1038/437205a
114. Sombroek WG (1966) Amazon soils: a reconnaissance of the soils of the Brazilian Amazon region. Centre for Agricultural Publications and Documentation, Wageningen, p 292
115. Sombroek WG, Fearnside PM, Cravo M (2000) Geographic assessment of carbon stored in Amazonian terrestrial ecosystems and their soils in particular. In: Lal R, Kimble JM, Stewart BA (eds) Global climate change and tropical ecosystems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, Advances in Soil Science, pp 375–389
116. Townsend AR, Vitousek PM, Holland EA (1992) Tropical soils could dominate the short-term carbon cycle feedbacks to increase global temperatures. Clim Change 22:293–303. doi:10.1007/BF00142430
117. 14C measurements of fractionated soil organic matter. In: Bouman AF (ed) Soils and the Greenhouse Effect. Wiley, New York, pp 407–414
118. Trumbore SE, Davidson EA, Camargo PB, Nepstad DC, Martinelli LA (1995) Below-ground cycling of carbon in forests and pastures of eastern Amazonia. Global Biogeochem Cycles 9(4):515–528. doi:10.1029/95GB02148
119. Uhl C, Buschbacher R, Serrão EAS (1988) Abandoned pastures in eastern Amazonia I patterns of plant succession. J Ecol 76:663–681. doi:10.2307/2260566
120. van der Ent RJ, Savenije HHG, Schaefli B, Steele-Dunne SC (2010) Origin and fate of atmospheric moisture over continents. Water Resour Res 46:W09525. doi:10.1029/2010WR009127
121. Vasconcelos SS, Fearnside PM, Graça PLMA, Nogueira EM, de Oliveira LC, Figueiredo EO (2013) Forest fires in southwestern Brazilian Amazonia: estimates of area and potential carbon emissions. For Ecol Manag 291:199–208. doi:10.1016/jforeco201211044
122. Wandelli EV, Fearnside PM (2015) Secondary vegetation in central Amazonia: land-use history effects on aboveground biomass. For Ecol Manag 347:140–148. doi:10.1016/jforeco201503020
123. Watson RT, Rodhe H, Oeschger H, Siegenthaler U (1990) Greenhouse gases and aerosols. In: Houghton JT, Jenkins GJ, Ephraums JJ (eds) Climate change: the IPCC scientific assessment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1–40
124. Woodhouse IH, Mitchard ETA, Brolly M, Maniatis D, Ryan CM (2012) Radar backscatter is not a ‘direct measure’ of forest biomass. Nat Clim Change 2(8):556–557. doi:10.1038/nclimate1601
125. Zemp DC, Schleussner C-F, Barbosa HMJ, van der Ent RJ, Donges JF, Heinke J, Sampaio G, Rammig A (2014) On the importance of cascading moisture recycling in South America. Atmos Chem Phys 14:13337–13359. doi:10.5194/acp-14-13337-2014