Biodiversity as an environmental service in Brazil's Amazonian forests: Risks, value and conservation

Environmental Conservation

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 305-321

  Fearnside, Philip M ^a  

^a INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE PESQUISAS DA AMAZÔNIA   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Amazonia; Biodiversity; Conservation; Deforestation; Rainforest; Tropical forests; Valuation

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; CONSERVATION PLANNING; NATURE CONSERVATION; PROTECTED AREA;

BIODIVERSITY; BRAZIL; COST; ETHNIC GROUP; FIRE; FOREST; REVIEW;

BRAZIL;

EID: 0033367332     PISSN: 03768929     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0376892999000429     Document Type: Review

References (151)

1. Adger, W.N., Brown, K., Cervigni, R. & Moran, D. (1995) Total economic value of forests in Mexico. Ambio 24(5): 286-96.
2. Allegretti, M.H. (1990) Extractive reserves: an alternative for reconciling development and environmental conservation in Amazonia. In: Alternatives to Deforestation: Steps inward Sustainable Use of Amazonian Rain Forest, ed. A.B. Anderson, pp. 252-64. New York, NY, USA: Columbia University Press.
3. Allegretti, M.H. (1994) Policies for the use of renewable natural resources: the Amazon Region and extractive activities. In: Extractivism in the Brazilian Amazon: Perspectives on Regional Development, ed. M. Clüsner-Gödt & I. Sachs, pp. 14-33. Paris, France: UNESCO.
4. Alper, J. (1994) Drug discovery on the assembly line. Science 264: 1399-401.
5. Ampuero, E. (1977) Crinipellis perniciosus (Stahel) Singer. In: Diseases, Pests and Weeds in Tropical Crops, ed. J. Kranz, H. Schmutterer & W. Koch, pp. 153-4. New York, NY, USA: Wiley.
6. Anon. (1999a) 'Amazônia: Um golpe mais forte na floresta.' Época (Sào Paulo) 39, 15 February 1999: 19.
7. Anon. (1999) 'Shaman loses its magic.' The Economist (London) 20-26 February 1999.
8. Attfield, R. (1998) Existence value and intrinsic value. Ecological Economics 24: 163-8.
9. Balick, M. & Mendelsohn, R. (1992) The economic value of traditional medicine from tropical rain forests. Conservation Biology 6: 128-39.
10. Barbosa, R.I. (1998) Avaliação da ́rea dos sistemas naturais e agroecossistemas atingida por incêndios no Estado de Roraima (01.12.97 a 30.04.98). Unpublished report. Boa Vista, RR, Brazil: Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia/Núcleo de Pesquisas de Roraima: 30 pp.
11. Barbosa, R.I. & Fearnside, P.M. (2000) Incêndios na Amazônia brasileira: estimativa da emissào de gases do efeito estufa pela queima de diferentes ecossistemas de Roraima na passagem do evento 'El Niǹo' (1997/98). Ciência Hoje (in press).
12. Bawa, K.S. & Seidler, R. (1998) Natural forest management and conservation of biodiversity in tropical forests. Conservation Biology 12(1): 46-55.
13. Brazil, IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística) & IBDF (Instituto Brasileiro do Desenvolvimento Florestal) (1988) Mapa de Vegetação do Brasil, scale 1:5 000 000. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: IBGE.
14. Brazil, IBGE (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística) (1992) Anuário Estatístico do Brasil 1992. Vol. 52. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: IBGE.
15. Brazil, INCRA (Instituto Nacional de Colonização e Reforma Agrária) (1996) Projetos de Assentamento Agro-Extrativistas: PAE's. Brasilia, DF, Brazil: Diretoria de Assentamento, INCRA: 79 pp.
16. Brazil, INPE (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais) (1998) Amazonia: deforestation 1995-1997 [WWW document]. URL http://www.inpe.br. São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil: INPE.
17. Brazil, INPE (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais) (1999) Monitoramento da Floresta Amazônica Brasileira por Satélite/Monitoring of the Brazilian Amazon Forest by satellite: 1997-1998 [WWW document]. URL http://www.inpe.br. São José dos Campos, SP, Brazil: INPE.
18. Browder, J.O. (1988) Public policy and deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. In: Public Policies and the Misuse of Forest Resources, ed. R. Repetto & M. Gillis, pp. 247-97. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
19. Brown, Jr, K.S. & Brown, G.G. (1992) Habitat alteration and species loss in Brazilian forests. In: Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction, ed. T.C. Whitmore & J.A. Sayer, pp. 119-42. London, UK: Chapman and Hall.
20. Budowski, G. (1976) Why save tropical rain forests? Some arguments for campaigning conservationists. Amazoniana 5(4): 529-38.
21. Carson, R.T. (1998) Valuation of tropical rainforests: philosophical and practical issues in the use of contingent valuation. Ecological Economics 24: 15-29.
22. Cartwright, J. (1985) The politics of preserving natural areas in Third World states. The Environmentalist 5(3): 179-86.
23. CBD (1992) The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity. Reprinted in International Legal Materials 31 (5 June 1992).
24. Cochrane, M.A. & Schulze, M.D. (1999) Fire as a recurrent event in tropical forests of the eastern Amazon: effects on forest structure, biomass, and species composition. Biotropica 31(1): 2-16.
25. Cochrane, M.A., Alencar, A., Schulze, M.D., Souza, Jr, C.M., Nepstad, D.C., Lefebvre, P. & Davidson, E.A. (1999) Positive feedbacks in the fire dynamic of closed canopy tropical forests. Science 284: 1832-5.
26. Cordell, G.A. (1995) Natural products as medicinal and biological agents: potentiating the resources of the rain forest. In: Chemistry of the Amazon: Biodiversity, Natural Products and Environmental Issues, ed. P.R. Seidl, O.R. Gottlieb & M.A.C. Kaplan, pp. 8-18. Washington, DC, USA: American Chemical Society.
27. Crook, C. & Clapp, R. A. (1998) Is market-oriented forest conservation a contradiction in terms? Environmental Conservation 25(2): 131-45.
28. Costanza, R., d'Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O'Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J. and others (1997) The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387: 253-60.
29. Cotton, C. & Romine, T. (1999) Facing destruction: a Greenpeace briefing on the timber industry in the Brazilian Amazon. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Greenpeace International: 21 pp.
30. Dirzo, R. & Miranda, A. (1990) Contemporary neotropical defaunation and forest structure, function, and diversity - a sequel to John Terborgh. Conservation Biology 4(4): 444-7.
31. Djerassi, C. (1992) Drugs from Third World plants: the future. Science 258: 203-4.
32. Dove, M. (1993) A revisionist view of tropical deforestation and development. Environmental Conservation 20(1): 17-14, 56.
33. Ehrenfeld, D.W. (1976) The conservation of non-resources. American Scientist 64: 648-56.
34. Ehrlich, P.R. & Ehrlich, A.H. (1981) Extinction: the Causes and Consequences of the Disappearance of Species. New York, NY, USA: Random House: 305 pp.
35. Elisabetsky, E. & Shanley, P. (1994) Ethnopharmacology in the Brazilian Amazon. Pharmacology and Therapeutics 64: 201-14.
36. Erwin, T.L. (1982) Tropical forests: their richness in Coleoptera and other arthropod species. Coleopterists Bulletin 36: 74-5.
37. Erwin, T.L. (1983) Beetles and other insects of tropical forest canopies at Manaus, Brazil, sampled by insecticidal fogging. In: Tropical Rain Forest: Ecology and Management, ed. S.L. Sutton, T.C. Whitmore & A.C. Chadwick, pp. 59-75. London, UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
38. Erwin, T.L. (1988) The tropical forest canopy: the heart of biotic diversity. In: Biodiversity, ed. E.O. Wilson, pp. 123-9. Washington, DC, USA: National Academy Press.
39. Faminow, M.D. (1998) Cattle, Deforestation and Development in the Amazon: an Economic and Environmental Perspective. New York, NY, USA: CAB International: 253 pp.
40. FAO (1993) Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Tropical Countries. FAO Forestry Paper 112. Rome, Italy: FAO: 61 pp. + annexes.
41. Farnsworth, N.R. (1988) Screening plants for new medicines. In: Biodiversity, ed. E.O. Wilson, pp. 83-97. Washington, DC, USA: National Academy Press.
42. Fearnside, P.M. (1980a) Land use allocation of the Transamazon Highway colonists of Brazil and its relation to human carrying capacity. In: Land, People and Planning in Contemporary Amazonia, ed. F. Barbira-Scazzocchio, pp. 114-38. Cambridge, UK: University of Cambridge Centre of Latin American Studies Occasional Paper No. 3.
43. Fearnside, P.M. (1980b) The effects of cattle pasture on soil fertility in the Brazilian Amazon: consequences for beef production sustainability. Tropical Ecology 21(1): 125-37.
44. Fearnside, P.M. (1980c) A previsão de perdas de terra através de erosão do solo sob vários usos de terra na área de colonização da Rodovia Transamazônica. Acta Amazonica 10(3): 505-11.
45. Fearnside, P.M. (1984) Land clearing behaviour in small farmer settlement schemes in the Brazilian Amazon and its relation to human carrying capacity. In: Tropical Rain Forest: the Leeds Symposium, ed. A.C. Chadwick & S.L. Sutton, pp. 255-71. Leeds, UK: Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society.
46. Fearnside, P.M. (1985a) Agriculture in Amazonia. In: Key Environments: Amazonia, ed. G.T. Prance & T.E. Lovejoy, pp. 393-418. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
47. Fearnside, P.M. (1985b) Environmental change and deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. In: Change in the Amazon Basin: Man's Impact on Forests and Rivers, ed. J. Hemming, pp. 70-89. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.
48. Fearnside, P.M. (1987) Causes of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon. In: The Geophysiology of Amazonia: Vegetation and Climate Interactions, ed. R.F. Dickinson, pp. 37-61. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley & Sons.
49. Fearnside, P.M. (1989a) Forest management in Amazonia: the need for new criteria in evaluating development options. Forest Ecology and Management 27(1): 61-79.
50. Fearnside, P.M. (1989b) Extractive reserves in Brazilian Amazonia: an opportunity to maintain tropical rain forest under sustainable use. BioScience 39(6): 387-93.
51. Fearnside, P.M. (1989c) A Ocupação Humana de Rondônia: Impactos, Limites e Planejamento. CNPq Relatórios de Pesquisa No. 5. Brasilia, Brazil: Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq): 76 pp.
52. Fearnside, P.M. (1993) Deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: the effect of population and land tenure. Ambio 22(8): 537-45.
53. Fearnside, P.M. (1995) Potential impacts of climatic change on natural forests and forestry in Brazilian Amazonia. Forest Ecology and Management 78(1): 51-70.
54. Fearnside, P.M. (1997a) Monitoring needs to transform Amazonian forest maintenance into a global warming mitigation option. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 2(2-3): 285-302.
55. Fearnside, P.M. (1997b) Protection of mahogany: a catalytic species in the destruction of rain forests in the American tropics. Environmental Conservation 24(4): 303-6.
56. Fearnside, P.M. (1997c) Limiting factors for development of agriculture and ranching in Brazilian Amazonia. Revista Brasileira de Biologia 57(4): 531-49.
57. Fearnside, P.M. (1997d) Greenhouse gases from deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: net committed emissions. Climatic Change 35(3): 321-60.
58. Fearnside, P.M. (1997e) Environmental services as a strategy for sustainable development in rural Amazonia. Ecological Economics 20(1): 53-70.
59. Fearnside, P.M. (1997f) Human carrying capacity estimation in Brazilian Amazonia as a basis for sustainable development. Environmental Conservation 24(3): 271-82.
60. Fearnside, P.M. (1999a) 'Cattle, Deforestation and Development in the Amazon: an Economic, Agronomic and Environmental Perspective' by Merle D. Famimow. Environmental Conservation 26(3): 238.
61. Fearnside, P.M. (1999b) Greenhouse gas emissions from land use change in Brazil's Amazon region. Advances in Soil Science (in press).
62. Fearnside, P.M. (1999c) The potential of Brazil's forest sector for mitigating global warming under the Kyoto Protocol's 'Clean Development Mechanism.' In: Proceedings of the Air & Waste Management Association (AWMA) Second International Specialty Conference on Global Climate Change, Washington, DC, 13-16 October 1998, ed. J.D. Kinsman. Pittsburg, PA, USA: AWMA (in press).
63. Fearnside, P.M. (1999d) Forests and global warming mitigation in Brazil: opportunities in the Brazilian forest sector for responses to global warming under the 'clean development mechanism.' Biomass and Bioenergy 16: 171-89.
64. Fearnside, P.M. & Ferraz, J. (1995) A conservation gap analysis of Brazil's Amazonian vegetation. Conservation Biology 9(5): 1134-47.
65. Fearnside, P.M. & Ferreira, G. de Lima (1985) Roads in Rondonia: highway construction and the farce of unprotected reserves in Brazil's Amazonian forest. Environmental Conservation 11(4): 358-60.
66. Ferreira, L.V., de Sá, R.M.L., Buschbacher, R. & Batmanian, G. (1999) Areas Protegidas ou Espaços Ameaçados? Relatório do WWF sobre o Grau de implementação e Vulnerabilidade das Unidades de Conservação Federais Brasileiras de Uso Indireto. Brasilia, Brazil: World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF): 17 pp.
67. Fjeldsa, J. & Rahbek, C. (1997) Species richness and endemism in South American birds: implications for the design of networks of nature reserves. In: Tropical Forest Remnants: Ecology, Management, and Conservation of Fragmented Communities, ed. W.F. Laurance & R.O. Bierregaard, pp. 466-82. Chicago, IL, USA: University of Chicago Press.
68. Foresta, R.A. (1991) Amazon Conservation in the Age of Development: the Limits of Providence. Gainesville, FL, USA: University of Florida Press: 366 pp.
69. Foy, G. (1990) Economic sustainability and the preservation of environmental assets. Environmental Management 14(6): 771-8.
70. Funtowicz, S.O. & Ravetz, J.R. (1994) The worth of a songbird: ecological economics as a post-normal science. Ecological Economics 10: 197-207.
71. Gascon, C. & Moutinho, P., eds. (1998) Floresta Amazônica: Dinâmica, Regeneração e Manejo. Manaus, AM, Brazil: Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA): 373 pp.
72. Gonçalves, M.A. (1998) FHC anestisia lei de crimes ambientais. Parabólicas (São Paulo) 3(42): 10.
73. Gregory, R. (1986) Interpreting measures of economic loss: evidence from contingent valuation and experimental studies. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 13: 325-37.
74. Grimes, A., Loomis, S., Jahnige, P., Burnham, M., Onthank, K., Alcarón, R., Cuenca, W.P., Martinez, C.C., Neill, D., Balick, M. and others (1994) Valuing the rain forest: the economic value of nontimber forest products in Ecuador. Ambio 23(7): 405-10.
75. Guruswamy, L.D. (1999) The Convention on Biological Diversity: exposing the flawed foundations. Environmental Conservation 26(2): 79-82.
76. Hecht, S.B. (1992a) Valuing land uses in Amazonia: colonist agriculture, cattle, and petty extraction in comparative perspective. In: Conservation of Neotropical Forests: Working from Traditional Resource Use, ed. K.H. Redford & C. Padoch, pp. 379-99. New York, NY, USA: Columbia University Press.
77. Hecht, S.B. (1992b) Logics of livestock and deforestation: the case of Amazonia. In: Development or Destruction: the Conversion of Tropical Forest to Pasture in Latin America, ed. T.E. Downing, S.B. Hecht, H.A. Pearson & C. Garcia-Downing, pp. 7-25. Boulder, CO, USA: Westview Press.
78. Hecht, S.B. (1993) The logic of livestock and deforestation in Amazonia. BioScience 43(10): 687-95.
79. Hecht. S.B., Norgaard, R.B. & Possio, C. (1988) The economics of cattle ranching in eastern Amazonia. Interciencia 13(5): 233-40.
80. Heywood, V.H. & Stuart, S.N. (1992) Species extinctions in tropical forests. In: Tropical Deforestation and Species Extinction, ed. T.C. Whitmore & J.A. Sayer, pp. 91-117. London, UK: Chapman and Hall.
81. Heywood, V.H. & Watson, R.T., eds. (1995) Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 1140 pp.
82. Holliday, P. (1977) Microcyclus ulei (P. Henn.) v. Arx. In: Diseases, Pests and Weeds in Tropical Crops, ed. J. Kranz, H. Schmutterer & W. Koch, pp. 125-7. New York, NY, USA: Wiley.
83. ISA (Instituto Socioambiental) (1999) Leis, medidas provisórias, projetos, propostas, relatórios [WWW document]. CRL http://www.socioambiental.org/noticias/naintegra/index.html, p. 31.
84. Jacobs, M. (1980) Significance of the tropical rain forest on 12 points. BioIndonesia 7: 75-94.
85. Janzen, D.H. (1986) The future of tropical ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 17: 305-24.
86. Janzen, D.H. (1988) Guanacaste National Park: tropical ecological and cultural restoration. In: Rehabilitating Damaged Ecosystems, 2 vols., ed. J. Cairns, Jr. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press.
87. Johansson, P.O. (1990) Valuing environmental damage. Oxford Review of Economic Policy 6: 34-50.
88. Johns, A.G. (1997) Timber Production and Biodiversity Conservation in Tropical Rain Forests. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 225 pp.
89. Kaplan, M.A.C. & Gottlieb, O.R. (1990) Busca racional de principios ativos em plantas. Interciencia 15(1): 26-9.
90. Kellert, S.R. (1993) The biological basis for human values of nature. In: The Biophilia Hypothesis, ed. S.R. Kellert & E.O. Wilson, pp. 42-69. Covelo, CA, USA: Island Press.
91. Kramer, R., van Schaik, C. & Johnson, J., eds. (1997) Last Stand: Protected Areas and the Defense of Tropical Biodiversity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press: 197 pp.
92. Laurance, W.F. & Bierregaard, R.O., eds. (1997) Tropical Forest Remnants: Ecology, Management, and Conservation of Fragmented Communities. Chicago, IL, USA: University of Chicago Press: 616 pp.
93. Lean, J., Bunton, C.B., Nobre, C.A. & Rowntree, P.R. (1996) The simulated impact of Amazonian deforestation on climate using measured ABRACOS vegetation characteristics. In: Amazonian Deforestation and Climate, ed. J.H.C. Gash, C.A. Nobre, J.M. Roberts & R.L. Victoria, pp. 549-76. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
94. Ludwig, D. (1999) Is it meaningful to estimate a probability of extinction? Ecology 80(1): 298-310.
95. MacArthur, R.H. & Wilson, E.O. (1967) The Theory of Island Biogeography, Monographs in Population Biology 1. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press: 203 pp.
96. Magnussen, W.E., Valenti, W.C. & Mourão, G.M. (1998) Espécies exóticas ameaçam biodiversidade brasileira. Ciência Hoje 24(139): 54-6.
97. Malingreau, J.P. & Tucker, C.J. (1988) Large-scale deforestation in the southeastern Amazon basin of Brazil. Ambio 17(1): 49-55.
98. May, R.M. (1973) Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems. Monographs in Population Biology 4. Princeton, NJ, USA: Princeton University Press: 235 pp.
99. McNeely, J.A., Miller, K.R., Reid, W.V., Mittermeier, R.A. & Werner, T.B. (1990) Conserving the World's Biological Diversity. Gland, Switzerland and Washington, DC, USA: World Conservation Union (IUCN), World Resources Institute (WRI), Conservation International (CI), World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-US) and World Bank: 193 pp.
100. Meijerink, G.W. (1995) Function Endowments of Tropical Forests: Safeguarding the Goose with the Golden Eggs. Werkdocument IKC Natuurbeheer 71. Wageningen, The Netherlands: National Reference Center for Nature Management (IKC Natuurbeheer), Foundation for Netherlands Forestry Development Cooperation (Stichting BOS): 77 pp.
101. Mendelsohn, R. & Balick, M. (1995) The value of undiscovered pharmaceuticals in tropical forests. Economic Botany 49: 223-8.
102. Mittermeier, R.A. (1988) Primate diversity and the tropical forest: case studies from Brazil and Madagascar and the importance of the megadiversity countries. In: Biodiversity, ed. E.O. Wilson, pp. 145-54. Washington, DC, USA: National Academy Press.
103. Murrieta, J.R. & Rueda, R.P., eds. (1995) Extractive Reserves. Gland, Switzerland: World Conservation Union (IUCN): 133 pp.
104. Myers, N. (1989) Loss of biological diversity and its potential impact on agriculture and food production. In: Food and Natural Resources, ed. D. Pimentel & C.W. Hall, pp. 49-68. San Diego, CA, USA: Academic Press.
105. Myers, N. (1992) The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and our Future, 2nd edn. New York, NY, USA: W.W. Norton: 416 pp.
106. Nelson, B.W., Ferreira, C.A.C., da Silva, M.F. & Kawasaki, M.L. (1990) Endemism centres, refugia and botanical collection density in Brazilian Amazonia. Nature 345: 714-16.
107. Nepstad, D.C., Moreira, A.G. & Alencar, A.A. (1999) Flames in the Rain Forest: Origins, Impacts and Alternatives to Amazonian Fires. Brasilia, DF, Brazil: World Bank: 161 pp.
108. Nepstad, D.C., Uhl, C. & Serrào, E.A.S. (1991) Recuperation of a degraded Amazonian landscape: forest recovery and agricultural restoration. Ambio 20(6): 248-55.
109. Norton, B. (1988) Commodity, amenity and morality: the limits of quantification in valuing biodiversity. In: Biodiversity, ed. E.O. Wilson, pp. 200-5. Washington, DC, USA: National Academy Press.
110. Oldfield, M.L. (1981) Tropical deforestation and genetic resources conservation. Studies in Third World Societies 14: 277-345.
111. Pearce, D. (1998) Can non-market values save the tropical forests? In: Tropical Rain Forest: A Wider Perspective, ed. F.B. Goldsmith, pp. 255-67. London, UK: Chapman & Hall.
112. Pearce, D. (1999) Methodological issues in the economic analysis for involuntary resettlement operations. In: The Economics of Involuntary Resettlement: Questions and Challenges, ed. M.M. Cernea, pp. 50-82. Washington, DC, USA: World Bank.
113. Pearce, D. & Moran, D. (1994) The Economic Value of Biodiversity. London, UK: Earthscan: 172 pp.
114. Peres, C.A. (1996). Population status of white-lipped Tayassu pecari and collared T. tajacu peccaries in hunted and unhunted Amazonian forests. Biological Conservation 77: 115-23.
115. Peres, C.A. (2000) Effects of subsistence hunting on vertebrate community structure in Amazonian forests. Conservation Biology (in press).
116. Peres, C.A. & Terborgh, J.W. (1995) Amazonian nature reserves: an analysis of the defensibility status of existing conservation units and design criteria for the future. Conservation Biology 9(1): 34-46.
117. Perrings, C., Barbier, E.B., Brown, G., Dalmazzone, S., Folke, C., Gadgil, M., Hanley, N., Holling, C.S., Lesser, W.H., Mäler, K.-G. and others (1995) The economic value of biodiversity. In: Global Biodiversity Assessment, ed. V.H. Heywood & R.T. Watson, pp. 823-914. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
118. Peters, C.M., Gentry, A.H. & Mendelsohn, R.O. (1989) Valuation of an Amazonian rainforest. Nature 339: 655-6.
119. Pimentel, D., Wilson, C., McCullum, C., Huang, R., Dwen, P., Flack, J., Tran, Q., Saltman, T. & Cliff, B. (1997a) Economic and environmental benefits of biodiversity. BioScience 47(11): 747-57.
120. Pimentel, D., McNair, M., Buck, L., Pimentel, M. & Kamil, J. (1997b) The value of forests to world food security. Human Ecology 25(1): 91-120.
121. Pires, J.M. & Prance, G.T. (1977) The Amazon forest: a natural heritage to be preserved. In: Extinction is Forever, ed. G.T. Prance & T.S. Elias, pp. 158-94. Bronx, NY, USA: New York Botanical Garden.
122. Plotkin, M.J. (1993) Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice: an Ethnobotanist's Searches for New Medicines in the Amazon Rain Forest. New York, NY, USA: Viking Penguin: 318 pp.
123. Poore, D. (1976) The values of tropical moist forest ecosystems. Unasylva 23: 128-45.
124. Primack, R.B. (1998) Essentials of Conservation Biology, 2nd. edn. Sunderland, MA, USA: Sinauer Associates: 659 pp.
125. Raiffa, H. (1968) Decision Analysis: Introductory Lectures on Choices under Uncertainty. Reading, MA, USA: Addison-Wesley: 312 pp.
126. Rankin, J.M. (1985) Forestry in the Brazilian Amazon. In: Key Environments: Amazonia, ed. G.T. Prance & T.E. Lovejoy, pp. 369-92. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
127. Redford, K.H. & Stearman, A.M. (1993) Forest-dwelling native Amazonians and the conservation of biodiversity: interests in common or in collision? Conservation Biology 7(2): 248-55.
128. Ricardo, C.A., ed. (1996) Povos Indígenas no Brasil 1991/1995. São Paulo, SP, Brazil: Instituto Socioambiental (ISA): 871 pp.
129. Richards, M. (1993) The potential of non-timber forest products in sustainable forest management in Amazonia. Commonwealth Forestry Review 72(1): 21-7.
130. Roberts, L. (1992) Chemical prospecting: hope for vanishing ecosystems? Science 256: 1142-3.
131. Ruitenbeek, J. (1992) The rainforest supply price. Ecological Economics 1: 57-78.
132. Rylands, A. (1990) Priority areas for conservation in the Amazon. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 5(8): 240-1.
133. Salati, E., Dall'Olio, A., Matusi, E. & Gat, J.R. (1979) Recycling of water in the Brazilian Amazon Basin: an isotopic study. Water Resources Research 15: 1250-8.
134. Salati, E. & Vose, P.B. (1984) Amazon Basin: a system in equilibrium. Science 225: 129-38.
135. Santiago, C.H. (1999) 'Fraude com terras pode somar R$200 mi.' Folha de São Paulo 21 June 1999: 1-6.
136. Sayer, J. (1991) Rainforest Buffer Zones: Guidelines for Protected Area Managers. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Forest Conservation Program: 94 pp.
137. Skole, D.L., Chomentowski, W.H., Salas, W.A. & Nobre, A.D. (1994) Physical and human dimensions of deforestation in Amazonia. BioScience 44(5): 314-22.
138. Skole, D.L. & Tucker, C.J. (1993) Tropical deforestation and habitat fragmentation in the Amazon: satellite data from 1978 to 1988. Science 260: 1905-10.
139. Stirling, A. (1993) Environmental valuation: how much is the emperor wearing? The Ecologist 23(3): 97-103.
140. Swanson, T. (1997) Global Action for Biodiversity. London, UK: Earthscan: 191 pp.
141. Traumann, T. (1998) 'Os novos vilões: ação dos sem-terra e de pequenos agricultures contribui para o desmatamento da Amazônia', Veja (São Paulo) 4 February 1998: 34-5.
142. Uhl, C. & Buschbacher, R. (1985) A disturbing synergism between cattle-ranch burning practices and selective tree harvesting in the eastern Amazon. Biotropica 17(4): 265-8.
143. Uhl, C. & Kauffman, J.B. (1990) Deforestation, fire susceptibility, and potential tree responses to fire in the Eastern Amazon. Ecology 71(2): 437-49.
144. Uhl, C., Nepstad, D.C., Silva, J.M.C. & Vieira, I. (1991) Restauração da floresta em pastagens degradadas. Ciência Hoje 13(76): 23-31.
145. United States House of Representatives (1983) Environmental Impact of Multilateral Development Bank Funded Projects. Hearings before the Subcommittee on International Development Institutions and Finance of the Committee on Banking, Finance and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives, 98th Congress, First Session, June 28 and 29, 1983, Serial No. 97-38. Washington, DC, USA: United States Government Printing Office: 644 pp.
146. van Kooten, C.G. (1998) Economics of conservation biology: a critical review. Environmental Science and Policy 1(1): 13-25.
147. Vásquez, R. & Gentry, A.H. (1989) Use and misuse of forest-harvested fruits in the Iquitos area. Conservation Biology 3(4): 350-61.
148. Wells, M.P. & Brandon, K.E. (1993) The principles and practices of buffer zones and local participation in biodiversity conservation. Ambio 22(3): 157-72.
149. Whitehead, B.W. & Godoy, R. (1991) The extraction of rattan-like lianas in the new world tropics: a possible prototype for sustainable forest management. Agroforestry Systems 16: 247-55.
150. Wilson, E.O. (1984) The Human Bond with Other Species. Cambridge, MA, USA: Harvard University Press: 157 pp.
151. Wilson, E.O. (1992) The Diversity of Life. Cambridge, MA, USA: Belknap/Harvard University Press: 424 pp.