Non-prescribed use of psychoactive prescription drugs among drug-impaired drivers in Sweden

Drug and Alcohol Dependence

Volumn 161, Issue , 2016, Pages 77-85

  Tjäderborn, Micaela ^a   Jönsson, Anna K ^a,b   Sandström, Tatiana Zverkova ^c   Ahlner, Johan ^a,b   Hägg, Staffan ^a,d  

^a LINKÖPING UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^b DEPARTMENT OF FORENSIC GENETICS AND FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY   (Sweden)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG   (Sweden)

^d Futurum   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Drug dispensing; Drug impaired driving; Non prescribed use; Pharmacoepidemiology; Prescription drug diversion

Indexed keywords

DIAZEPAM; FLUNITRAZEPAM; PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT; TRAMADOL; ZOLPIDEM; ZOPICLONE; PRESCRIPTION DRUG;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; ARTICLE; CAR DRIVER; CAR DRIVING; CONTROLLED STUDY; DATA BASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG IMPAIRED DRIVING; DRUG INFORMATION; FEMALE; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRESCRIPTION; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SWEDEN; TOXICOLOGY; MIDDLE AGED; PSYCHOLOGY; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; VERY ELDERLY; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; AUTOMOBILE DRIVING; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; PRESCRIPTION DRUGS; PREVALENCE; PSYCHOTROPIC DRUGS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; SWEDEN; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84971475834     PISSN: 03768716     EISSN: 18790046     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.01.031     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Agrawal A., Lynskey M.T., Madden P.A.F., Bucholz K.K., Heath A.C. A latent class analysis of illicit drug abuse/dependence: results from the National Epidemiological Survey on alcohol and related conditions. Addiction 2006, 102:94-104.
2. Ahlner J., Holmgren A., Jones A.W. Prevalence of alcohol and other drugs and the concentrations in blood of drivers killed in road traffic crashes in Sweden. Scand. J. Public Health 2014, 42:177-183. 10.1177/1403494813510792.
3. Bertisch S.M., Herzig S.J., Winkelman J.W., Buettner C. National use of prescription medications for insomnia: NHANES 1999-2010. Sleep 2010, 37:343-349. 10.5665/sleep.3410.
4. Bezemer K.D., Smink B.E., van Maanen R., Verschraagen M., de Gjer J.J. Prevalence of medicinal drugs in suspected impaired drivers and a comparison with the use in the general Dutch population. Forensic Sci. Int. 2014, 241:203-211. 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.06.004.
5. Bodén R., Wettermark B., Brandt L., Kieler H. Factors associated with pregabalin dispensing at higher than the approved maximum dose. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2014, 70:197-204. 10.1007/s00228-013-1594-5.
6. Boxenbaum H.G., Posmanter H.N., Macasieb T., Geitner K.A., Weinfeld R.E., Morre J.D., Darragh A., O'Kelly D.A., Weissman L., Kaplan S.A. Pharmacokinetics of flunitrazepam following single- and multiple-dose oral administration to healthy human subjects. J. Pharmacokinet. Biopharm. 1978, 6:283-293.
7. Burch H.J., Clarke E.J., Hubbard A.M., Scott-Ham M. Concentrations of drugs determined in blood samples collected from suspected drugged drivers in England and Wales. J. Forensic Leg. Med. 2013, 20:278-289. 10.1016/j.jflm.2012.10.005.
8. Buurma H., Bouvy M.L., De Smet P.A., Floor-Schreudering A., Leufkens H.G., Egerts A.C. Prevalence and determinants of pharmacy shopping behavior. J. Clin. Pharm. Ther. 2008, 33:17-23. 10.1111/j.1365-2710.2008.00878.x.
9. Casati A., Sedefov R., Preffer-Gerschel T. Misuse of medicines in the European Union: a systematic review of the literature. Eur. Addict. Res. 2012, 18:228-245. 10.1159/000337028.
10. Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS), 2012. Center for Program Integrity. Drug Diversion In The Medicaid Program: State Strategies For Reducing Prescription Drug Diversion In Medicaid. Retrieved on 27 October 2015. http://www4a.cms.gov/MedicaidIntegrityProgram/Downloads/drugdiversion.pdf.
11. Cepeda M.S., Fife D., Chow W., Mastrogiovanni G., Henderson S.C. Assessing opioid shopping behavior: a large cohort study from a medication dispensing database in the US. Drug Saf. 2012, 35:325-334. 10.2165/11596600-000000000-00000.
12. Christophersen A.S., Mørland J. Frequent detection of benzodiazepines in drugged drivers in Norway. Traffic Inj. Prev. 2008, 9:98-104. 10.1080/15389580701869190.
13. Compton W.M., Thomas Y.F., Stinson F.S., Grant B.F. Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV drug abuse and dependence in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2007, 64:566-576. 10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.566.
14. Darke S. Polydrug use and overdose: overthrowing old myths. Addiction 2003, 98:711.
15. Dassanayake T., Michie P., Carter G., Jones A. Effects of benzodiazepines, antidepressants and opioids on driving: a systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological and experimental evidence. Drug Saf. 2011, 34:125-156. 10.2165/11539050-000000000-00000.
16. Degenhardt L., Hall W., Lynskey M. Alcohol, cannabis and tobacco use among Australians: a comparison of their associations with other drug use and use disorders, affective and anxiety disorders, and psychosis. Addiction 2001, 96:1603-1614. 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961116037.x.
17. Fischer B., Rehm J. Illicit opioid use in the 21st centrury: witnessing a paradigm shift?. Addiction 2007, 102:499-501.
18. Fischer B., Bibby M., Bouchard M. The global diversion of pharmaceutical drugs. Non-medical use and diversion of psychotropic prescription drugs in North America: a review of sourcing routes and control measures. Addiction 2010, 105:2062-2070. 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03092.x.
19. Fischer B., Keates A., Bühringer G., Reimer J., Rehm J. Non-medical use of prescription opioids and prescription-opioid related harms: why so markedly higher in North America compared to the rest of the world?. Addiction 2014, 109:177-181. 10.1111/add.12224.
20. Fittler A., Bösze G., Botz L. Evaluating aspects of online medication safety in long-term follow-up of 136 Internet pharmacies: illegal rouge online pharmacies flourish and are long-lived. J. Med. Internet Res. 2013, 15:e199. 10.2196/jmir.2606.
21. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 1970. Controlled Substances Act, Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act, Public law no 91-513 84 Stat. 1242. The 91st United States Congress, 27 October 1970.
22. Fountain J., Strang J., Gossop M., Farrell M., Griffiths P. Diversion of prescribed drugs by drug users in treatment: analysis of the UK market and new data from London. Addiction 2000, 95:393-406. 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.95339310.x.
23. Freeman J., Maxwell J.C., Davey J. Unraveling the complexity of driving while intoxicated: a study into the prevalence of psychiatric and substance abuse comorbidity. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2011, 43:34-39. 10.1016/j.aap.2010.06.004.
24. Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 Collaborators, 2015. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 386, 743-800. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60692-4.
25. Griffiths, P., Evans-Brown, M., Sedefov, R., 2014. The (mis)use of psychoactive medicines: getting the balance right in complex systems. Addiction. 109, 182k3. Commentary on Fischer et al., 2014. Addiction 109, 177-181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/add.12306.
26. Grond S., Sablotzki A. Clinical pharmacology of tramadol. Clin. Pharmacokinet 2004, 43:879-923. 10.2165/00003088-200443130-00004.
27. Gustavsen I., Bramness J.G., Skurtveit S., Engeland A., Neutel I., Mørland J. Road traffic accident risk related to prescriptions of the hypnotics zopiclone, zolpidem, flunitrazepam and nitrazepam. Sleep Med. 2008, 9:818-822. 10.1016/j.sleep.2007.11.011.
28. Hall A.J., Logan J.E., Toblin R.L., Kaplan J.A., Kraner J.C., Bixler D., Crosby A.E., Paulozzi L.J. Patterns of abuse among unintentional pharmaceutical overdose fatalities. JAMA 2008, 300:2613-2620. 10.1001/jama.2008.802.
29. Hallas J. Drug utilization statistics for individual-level pharmacy dispensing data. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 2005, 14:455-463. 10.1002/pds.1063.
30. Han H., Kass P.H., Wilsey B.L., Li C.S. Increasing trends in Schedule II opioid use and doctor shopping during 1999-2007 in California. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 2014, 23:26-35. 10.1002/pds.3496.
31. Hetland A., Carr D.B. Medications and impaired driving. Ann. Pharmacother. 2014, 48:494-506. 10.1177/1060028014520882.
32. Häkkinen M., Vuori E., Ojanpera I. Prescription opioid abuse based on representative postmortem toxicology. For. Sci. Int. 2014, 245:121-125. 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.10.028.
33. Inciardi J.A., Surratt H.L., Kurtz S.P., Cicero T.J. Mechanisms of prescription drug diversion among drug-involved club- and street-based populations. Pain Med. 2007, 8:171-183. 10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00255.x.
34. Inciardi J.A., Surratt H.L., Cicero T.J., Beard R.A. Prescription opioid abuse and diversion in an urban community: the results of an ultrarapid assessment. Pain Med. 2009, 10:537-548. 10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00603.x.
35. Jones A.W. Driving under the influence of drugs in Sweden with zero concentration limits in blood for controlled substances. Traffic Inj. Prev. 2005, 6:317-322. 10.1080/15389580500253760.
36. Jones A.W., Kugelberg F.C., Holmgren A., Ahlner J. Five-year update on the occurrence of alcohol and other drugs in blood samples from drivers killed in road-traffic crashes in Sweden. Forensic Sci. Int. 2009, 186:56-62. 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.01.014.
37. Jones J.D., Mogali S., Comer S.D. Polydrug abuse: a review of opioid and benzodiazepine combination use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2012, 125:8-18. 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.07.004.
38. Karjalainen K., Lintonen T., Impinen A., Lillsunde P., Mäkelä P., Rahkonen O., Haukka J., Ostamo A. Socio-economic determinants of drugged driving- a register based study. Addiction 2011, 106:1448-1459. 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03422.x.
39. Karjalainen K., Lintonen T., Joukamaa M., Lillsunde P. Mental disorders associated with driving under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs: a register-based study. Eur. Addict. Res. 2012, 19:113-120. 10.1159/000342569.
40. Karjalainen K., Haukka J., Lintonen T., Joukamaa M., Lillsunde P. The use of psychoactive prescription drugs among DUI suspects. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2015, 155:215-221. 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.07.1195.
41. Lapeyre-Mestre M., Gony M., Carvajal A., Macias D., Conforti A., D'Incau P., Heedink R., van der Stichele R., Bergman U. A European community-based survey to investigate patterns of prescription fraud through identification of falsified prescriptions. Eur. Addict. Res. 2014, 20:174-182. 10.1159/000356812.
42. Lapham S.C., Smith E., C'De Baca J., Chang I., Skipper B.J., Baum G., Hunt W.C. Prevalence of psychiatric disorders among persons convicted of driving while impaired. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2001, 58:943-949. 10.1001/archpsyc.58.10.943.
43. Lee J.O., Herrenkohl T.I., Kosterman R., Small C.M., Hawkins J.D. Educational inequalities in the co-occurrence of mental health and substance use problems, and its adult socio-economic consequences: a longitudinal study of young adults in a community sample. Public Health 2013, 127:745-753. 10.1016/j.puhe.2013.04.005.
44. Medical Products Agency (MPA), 2009. LVFS 1997:12 with adjustments until 2009:22 Swedish law on narcotic drugs. [Föreskrift om ändring i Läkemedelsverkets föreskrifter (LVFS 1997:12) om förteckningar över narkotika (LVFS 2009:22)]. Medical Products Agency, Sweden. 25 November 2009.
45. Medical Products Agency (MPA), 2012. Communication regarding changed legislation for tramadol. [Läkemedel med tramadol är narkotika]. Retrieved on 30 April 2012. http://https://lakemedelsverket.se/Alla-nyheter/NYHETER-2012/Lakemedel-med-tramadol-ar-narkotika/.
46. Melartin T.K., Rytsälä H.J., Leskelä U.S., Lestelä-Mielonen P.S., Sokero T.P., Isometsä E.T. Current comorbidity of psychiatric disorders among DSM-IV major depressive disorder patients in psychiatric care in the Vantaa Depresion Study. J. Clin. Psychol. 2002, 63:126-134.
47. Moloney M.E., Konrad T.R., Zimmer C.R. The medicalization of sleeplessness: a public health concern. Am. J. Public Health 2011, 101:1429-1433. 10.2105/AJPH.2010.300014.
48. Monnat S.M., Rigg K.K. Examining rural/urban differences in prescription opioid misuse among US adolescents. J. Rural Health 2015, [Epub ahead of print]. 10.1111/jrh.12141.
49. National Board of Health and Welfare (NBHF), 2014. Yearly drug sales statistics [Socialstyrelsens databas för läkemedelsstatistik]. Retrieved on 11 September 2014. http://www.socialstyrelsen.se/statistik/statistikdatabas/lakemedel.
50. Neutel C.I., Skurveit S., Berg C. What is the point of guidelines? Benzodiazepine and z-hypnotic use by an elderly population. Sleep Med. 2012, 13:893-897. 10.1016/j.sleep.2011.12.014.
51. Nordmann S., Pradel V., Lapeyre-Mestre M., Frauger E., Pauly V., Thirion X., Mallaret M., Jouanjus E., Micallef J. Doctor shopping reveals geographical variations in opioid abuse. Pain Physician 2013, 16:89-100.
52. Paulozzi L.J., Logan J.E., Hall A.J., McKinstry E., Kaplan J.A., Crosby A.E. A comparison of drug overdose deaths involving methadone and other opioid analgesics in West Virginia. Addiction 2009, 104:1541-1548. 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02650.x.
53. Peirce G.L., Smith M.J., Abate M.A., Halverson J. Doctor and pharmacy shopping for controlled substances. Med. Care 2012, 50:494-500. 10.1097/MLR.0b013e31824ebd81.
54. Pottegård A., Hallas J. Assigning exposure duration to single prescriptions by use of the waiting time distribution. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 2013, 22:803-809. 10.1002/pds.3459.
55. Rigg K.K., Monnat S.M. Comparing characteristics of prescription painkiller misusers and heroin users in the United States. Addict. Behav. 2015, 51:106-112. [Epub ahead of print]. 10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.07.013.
56. Rudisill T.M., Zhao S., Abate M.A., Coben J.H., Zhu M. 2014. Trends in drug use among drivers killed in U.S. traffic crashes, 1999-2010. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2010, 70:178-187. 10.1016/j.aap.2014.04.003.
57. Rönkä S., Karjalainen K., Vuori E., Mäkelä P. Personally prescribed psychoactive drugs in overdose deaths among drug abusers: a retrospective register study. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2015, 34:82-89. 10.1111/dar.12182.
58. Secora A.M., Dormitzer C.M., Staffa J.A., Dal Pan G.J. Measures to quantify the abuse of prescription opioids: a review of data sources and metrics. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 2014, 23:1227-1237. 10.1002/pds.3711.
59. Simmons M.M., Cupp M.J. Use and abuse of flunitrazepam. Ann. Pharmacother. 1998, 32:117-119. 10.1345/aph.17027.
60. Statistics Sweden, 2015. Statistics on income distributions and income percentiles in Sweden for the year 2008. [Sammanräknad förvärvsinkomst för boende i Sverige >15 år för året 2008, Petter Lundberg]. 2015-12-10. Örebro, Sweden.
61. Sunderland M., Slade T., Krueger R.F. Examining the shared and unique relationships among substance use and mental disorders. Psychol. Med. 2015, 45:1103-1113. 10.1017/S0033291714002219.
62. Sutherland I., Shepherd J.P. Social dimensions of adolescent substance use. Addiction 2001, 96:445-458. 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.9634458.x.
63. Swedish border authority (SBA), 2014. Annual statistics of the Swedish Border Authority and personal correspondence. [Nationell beslagsstatistik, helår]. Retrieved on 13 September 2014. http://www.tullverket.se/press/beslagsstatistik/nationellbeslagsstatistik/helarnationellbeslagsstatistik.4.16f3ec5a144fd16b2f4262.html.
64. The International Association of Forensic Toxicologists (TIAFT), 2010. Reference Blood Level List of Therapeutic and Toxic Concentrations. Bulletin of TIAFT. 26, S1-34.
65. Tjäderborn M., Jönsson A.K., Hägg S., Ahlner J. 2007. Fatal unintentional intoxications with tramadol during 1995-2005. Forensic Sci. Int. 2007, 173:107-111. 10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.02.007.
66. Toblin R.L., Paulozzi L.J., Logan E.J., Hall A.J., Kaplan J.A. Mental illness and psychotropic drug use among prescription drug overdose deaths: a medical examiner chart review. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2010, 71:491-496. 10.4088/JCP.09m05567blu.
67. Turner C., McClure R. Age and gender differences in risk-taking behavior as an explanation for high incidence of motor vehicle crashes as a driver in young males. Inj. Control Saf. Promot. 2003, 10:123-130. 10.1076/icsp.10.3.123.14560.
68. U.K. Parliament, 1971. Misuse of Drugs Act, c. 38, Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, 27 May 1971.
69. United Nations (UN), 1971. Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Vienna, 1 Januari-21 February 1971.
70. United Nations (UN), 1975. Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs of 1961, as amended by the protocol amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961. Vol 976. New York, 8 August 1975.
71. United Nations (UN) International Narcotics Control Board Yellow List: List of narcotic drugs under international control 2004.
72. United Nations (UN), 2014. Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2013. Vienna, Austria, 4 March 2014.
73. Wang K.H., Fiellin D.A., Becker W.C. Source of prescription drugs used nonmedically in rural and urban populations. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 2014, 40:292-303. 10.3109/00952990.2014.907301.
74. Wettermark B., Hammar N., Fored C.M., Leimanis A., Otterblad P., Bergman U., Persson I., Sundström A., Westerholm B., Rosén M. The new Swedish prescribed drug register-opportunities for pharmacoepidemiological research and experience from the first six months. Pharm. Drug Saf. 2007, 16:726-735. 10.1002/pds.1294.
75. Wikner B.N., Öhman I., Seldén T., Druid H., Brandt L., Kieler H. Opioid-related mortality and filled prescriptions for buprenorphine and methadone. Drug Alcohol Rev. 2014, 33:491-498. 10.1111/dar.12143.
76. Wilson F.A., Stimpson J.P., Pagàn J.A. Fatal crashes from drivers testing positive for drugs in the U.S. 1993-2010. Public Health Rep. 2010, 129:342-350.
77. Winstock A.R., Borschmann R., Bell J. The non-medical use of tramadol in the UK: findings from a large community sample. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 2014, 68:1147-1151. 10.1111/ijcp.12429.
78. World Health Organization (WHO) Technical report of the WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence, WHO technical report series 942, 34:th report 2006.
79. World Health Organization (WHO), 2008. Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology, Guidelines for ATC classification and DDD assignment, 2009. Oslo, 2008.
80. Worley J., Thomas S.P. Women who doctor shop for prescription drugs. West. J. Nurs. Res. 2014, 36:456-474. 10.1177/0193945913509692.
81. Wu L.T., Woody G.E., Yang C., Blazer D.G. How do prescription users differ from users of heroin or other drugs in psychopathology: results from the National Epidemiology Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J. Addict. Med. 2011, 5:28-35. 10.1097/ADM.0b013e3181e0364e.
82. Zamparutti G., Schifano F., Corkey J.M., Oyefeso A., Ghodse A.H. Deaths of opiate/opioid misusers involving dihydrocodeine, UK, 1997-2007. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2011, 72:330-337. 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.03908.x.