Will a perfect model agree with perfect observations? The impact of spatial sampling

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 16, Issue 10, 2016, Pages 6335-6353

  Schutgens, Nick A J ^a   Gryspeerdt, Edward ^b   Weigum, Natalie ^a   Tsyro, Svetlana ^c   Goto, Daisuke ^d   Schulz, Michael ^c   Stier, Philip ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LEIPZIG   (Germany)

^c NORWEGIAN METEOROLOGICAL INSTITUTE   (Norway)

^d NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES   (Japan)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AEROSOL; AIRBORNE SENSING; CLIMATE MODELING; GLOBAL CLIMATE; PIXEL; SATELLITE IMAGERY; SPATIAL RESOLUTION;

EID: 84971373720     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-16-6335-2016     Document Type: Article

References (60)

1. Ackermann, I. J., Hass, H., Memmesheimer, M., Ebel, A., Binkowski, F. S., and Shankar, U. M. A. MODAL AEROSOL DYNAMICS MODEL FOR EUROPE: DEVELOPMENT AND FIRST APPLICATIONS. Atmos. Environ., 32, 2981-2999, 1998
2. Albrecht, B. A. Aerosols. cloud microphysics, and fractional cloudiness, Science, 245, 1227-1230, 1989
3. Anderson, T. E., Charlson, R. J., Winker, D. M., Ogren, J. A., and Holmen, K. Mesoscale Variations of Tropospheric Aerosols. J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 119-136, 2003
4. Angstrom, B. A. Atmospheric turbidity . global illumination and planetary albedo of the earth, Tellus, XIV, 435-450, 1962
5. Ballester, J., Burns, J. C., Cayan, D., Nakamura, Y., Uehara, R., and Rodó, X. Kawasaki disease and ENSO-driven wind circulation. Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 2284-2289, doi:10.1002/grl.50388, 2013
6. Beelen, R., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Stafoggia, M., Andersen, Z. J., Weinmayr, G., Hoffmann, B., Wolf, K., Samoli, E., Fischer, P., Nieuwenhuijsen, M., Vineis, P., Xun, W. W., Katsouyanni, K., Dimakopoulou, K., Oudin, A., Forsberg, B., Modig, L., Havulinna, A. S., Lanki, T., Turunen, A., Oftedal, B., Nystad, W., Nafstad, P., De Faire, U., Pedersen, N. L., Östenson, C.-G., Fratiglioni, L., Penell, J., Korek, M., Pershagen, G., Eriksen, K. T., Overvad, K., Ellermann, T., Eeftens, M., Peeters, P. H., Meliefste, K., Wang, M., Bueno-de Mesquita, B., Sugiri, D., Krämer, U., Heinrich, J., de Hoogh, K., Key, T., Peters, A., Hampel, R., Concin, H., Nagel, G., Ineichen, A., Schaffner, E., Probst-Hensch, N., Künzli, N., Schindler, C., Schikowski, T., Adam, M., Phuleria, H., Vilier, A., Clavel-Chapelon, F., Declercq, C., Grioni, S., Krogh, V., Tsai, M.-Y., Ricceri, F., Sacerdote, C., Galassi, C., Migliore, E., Ranzi, A., Cesaroni, G., Badaloni, C., Forastiere, F., Tamayo, I., Amiano, P., Dorronsoro, M., Katsoulis, M., Trichpoulou, A., Brunekreef, B., and Hoek, G. Effects of long-Term exposure to air pollution on natural-cause mortality: an analysis of 22 European cohorts within the multicentre ESCAPE project. The Lancet, 383, 785-795, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)62158-3, 2013
7. Benkovitz, C. M., and Schwartz, E. Evaluation of modeled sulfate and SO2 over North America and Europe for four seasonal months in 1986-1987. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 25305-25338, 1997
8. Brunekreef, B., and Holgate, S. T. Air pollution and health. The Lancet, 360, 1233-1242, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11274-8, 2002
9. Cavanaugh, N. R., and Shen, S. S. P. The effects of gridding algorithms on the statistical moments and their trends of daily surface air temperature. J. Climate, 28, 9188-9205, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00668.1, 2015
10. Chin, M., Ginoux, P., KInne, S., Torres, O., Holben, B. N., Duncan, B. N., Martin, R. V., Logan, J. A., Higurashi, A., and Nakajima, T. Tropospheric Aerosol Optical Thickness from the GOCART Model and Comparisons with Satellite and Sun Photometer Measurements. J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 461-483, 2002
11. Director, H., and Bornn, L. Connecting point-level and gridded moments in the analysis of climate data. J. Climate, 28, 3496-3510, doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00571.1, 2015
12. Dockery, D., Pope, A., Xu, X., Spengler, J., Ware, J., Fay, M., Ferris, B., and Speizer, F. An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities. New Engl. J. Med., 329, 1753-1759, 1993
13. Ezzati, M., Lopez, A. D., Rodgers, A., Vander Hoorn, S., and Murray, C. J. L. Selected major risk factors and global and regional burden of disease. The Lancet, 360, 1347-60, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11403-6, 2002
14. Fast, J. D., Gustafson, W. I., Easter, R. C., Zaveri, R. A., Barnard, J. C., Chapman, E. G., Grell, G. A., and Peckham, S. E. Evolution of ozone. particulates, and aerosol direct radiative forcing in the vicinity of Houston using a fully coupled meteorology-chemistry-Aerosol model, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D21305, doi:10.1029/2005JD006721, 2006
15. Fuzzi, S., Baltensperger, U., Carslaw, K., Decesari, S., Denier van der Gon, H., Facchini, M. C., Fowler, D., Koren, I., Langford, B., Lohmann, U., Nemitz, E., Pandis, S., Riipinen, I., Rudich, Y., Schaap, M., Slowik, J. G., Spracklen, D. V., Vignati, E., Wild, M., Williams, M., and Gilardoni, S. Particulate matter. air quality and climate: lessons learned and future needs, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 8217-8299, doi:10.5194/acp-15-8217-2015, 2015
16. Goto, D., Dai, T., Satoh, M., Tomita, H., Uchida, J., Misawa, S., Inoue, T., Tsuruta, H., Ueda, K., Ng, C. F. S., Takami, A., Sugimoto, N., Shimizu, A., Ohara, T., and Nakajima, T. Application of a global nonhydrostatic model with a stretched-grid system to regional aerosol simulations around Japan. Geosci. Model Dev., 8, 235-259, doi:10.5194/gmd-8-235-2015, 2015
17. Grell, G. A., Peckham, S. E., Schmitz, R., McKeen, S. A., Frost, G., Skamarock, W. C., and Eder, B. Fully coupled online chemistry within the WRF model. Atmos. Environ., 39, 6957-6975, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.04.027, 2005
18. Gryspeerdt, E., Stier, P., White, B. A., and Kipling, Z. Wet scavenging limits the detection of aerosol effects on precipitation. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 7557-7570, doi:10.5194/acp-15-7557-2015, 2015
19. Gustafson, W. I., Qian, Y., and Fast, J. D. Downscaling aerosols and the impact of neglected subgrid processes on direct aerosol radiative forcing for a representative global climate model grid spacing. J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, 1-28, doi:10.1029/2010JD015480, 2011
20. Hakuba, M. Z., Folini, D., and Wild, M. Solar absorption over Europe from collocated surface and satellite observations. J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 3420-3437, doi:10.1002/2013JD021421, 2014
21. Hakuba, M. Z., Folini, D., Sanchez-lorenzo, A., and Wild, M. Spatial representativeness of ground-based solar radiation measurements-extension to the full Meteosat disk. J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 16, 50673, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50673, 2014
22. Hansen, J., Sato, M., and Ruedy, R. Radiative forcing and climate response. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 6831-6864, 1997
23. Hess, M., Koepke, P., and Schult, I. Optical Properties of Aerosols and Clouds: The Software Package OPAC. B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 79, 831-844, doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1998)0790831:OPOAAC2.0.CO;2, 1998
24. Huneeus, N., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Griesfeller, J., Prospero, J., Kinne, S., Bauer, S., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Grini, A., Horowitz, L., Koch, D., Krol, M. C., Landing, W., Liu, X., Mahowald, N., Miller, R., Morcrette, J.-J., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Perlwitz, J., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Zender, C. S. Global dust model intercomparison in AeroCom phase I. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 7781-7816, doi:10.5194/acp-11-7781-2011, 2011
25. Kinne, S., Schulz, M., Textor, C., Guibert, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S. E., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T. F., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Collins, W., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Feichter, J., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Grini, A., Hendricks, J., Herzog, M., Horowitz, L., Isaksen, I., Iversen, T., Kirkevåg, A., Kloster, S., Koch, D., Kristjansson, J. E., Krol, M., Lauer, A., Lamarque, J. F., Lesins, G., Liu, X., Lohmann, U., Montanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, O., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Tie, X. An AeroCom initial assessment-optical properties in aerosol component modules of global models. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1815-1834, doi:10.5194/acp-6-1815-2006, 2006
26. Kipling, Z., Stier, P., Schwarz, J. P., Perring, A. E., Spackman, J. R., Mann, G. W., Johnson, C. E., and Telford, P. J. Constraints on aerosol processes in climate models from vertically-resolved aircraft observations of black carbon. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 5969-5986, doi:10.5194/acp-13-5969-2013, 2013
27. Koch, D., Schulz, M., Kinne, S., McNaughton, C., Spackman, J. R., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Bond, T. C., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Clarke, A., De Luca, N., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Dubovik, O., Easter, R., Fahey, D. W., Feichter, J., Fillmore, D., Freitag, S., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Horowitz, L., Iversen, T., Kirkevåg, A., Klimont, Z., Kondo, Y., Krol, M., Liu, X., Miller, R., Montanaro, V., Moteki, N., Myhre, G., Penner, J. E., Perlwitz, J., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Sahu, L., Sakamoto, H., Schuster, G., Schwarz, J. P., Seland, Ø., Stier, P., Takegawa, N., Takemura, T., Textor, C., van Aardenne, J. A., and Zhao, Y. Evaluation of black carbon estimations in global aerosol models. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 9001-9026, doi:10.5194/acp-9-9001-2009, 2009
28. Koffi, B., Schulz, M., Bréon, F.-M., Griesfeller, J., Winker, D., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Chin, M., Collins, W. D., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Horowitz, L. W., Iversen, T., Kirkevåg, A., Koch, D., Krol, M., Myhre, G., Stier, P., and Takemura, T. Application of the CALIOP layer product to evaluate the vertical distribution of aerosols estimated by global models: AeroCom phase I results. J. Geophys. Res., 117, D10201, doi:10.1029/2011JD016858, 2012
29. Kovacs, T. Comparing MODIS and AERONET aerosol optical depth at varying separation distances to assess ground-based validation strategies for spaceborne lidar. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D24203, doi:10.1029/2006JD007349, 2006
30. Lequy, É., Conil, S., and Turpault, M.-P. Impacts of Aeolian dust deposition on European forest sustainability: A review. Forest Ecol. Manage., 267, 240-252, doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2011.12.005, 2012
31. Lohmann, U., and Feichter, J. Impact of sulfate aerosols on albedo and lifetime of clouds : A sensitivity study with the ECHAM4 GCM. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 13685-13700, 1997
32. Lohmann, U., and Feichter, J. Global indirect aerosol effects: a review. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 715-737, doi:10.5194/acp-5-715-2005, 2005
33. Maher, B., Prospero, J., Mackie, D., Gaiero, D., Hesse, P., and Balkanski, Y. Global connections between aeolian dust. climate and ocean biogeochemistry at the present day and at the last glacial maximum, Earth-Sci. Rev., 99, 61-97, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2009.12.001, 2010
34. McTainsh, G., and Strong, C. The role of aeolian dust in ecosystems. Geomorphology, 89, 39-54, doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.07.028, 2007
35. Myhre, G., Samset, B. H., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T. K., Bian, H., Bellouin, N., Chin, M., Diehl, T., Easter, R. C., Feichter, J., Ghan, S. J., Hauglustaine, D., Iversen, T., Kinne, S., Kirkevåg, A., Lamarque, J.-F., Lin, G., Liu, X., Lund, M. T., Luo, G., Ma, X., van Noije, T., Penner, J. E., Rasch, P. J., Ruiz, A., Seland, Ø., Skeie, R. B., Stier, P., Takemura, T., Tsigaridis, K., Wang, P., Wang, Z., Xu, L., Yu, H., Yu, F., Yoon, J.-H., Zhang, K., Zhang, H., and Zhou, C. Radiative forcing of the direct aerosol effect from AeroCom Phase II simulations. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 1853-1877, doi:10.5194/acp-13-1853-2013, 2013
36. Pope, V. D., and Stratton, R. A. The processes governing horizontal resolution sensitivity in a climate model. Clim. Dynam., 19, 211-236, doi:10.1007/s00382-001-0222-8, 2002
37. Qian, Y., Gustafson Jr., W. I., and Fast, J. D. An investigation of the sub-grid variability of trace gases and aerosols for global climate modeling. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 6917-6946, doi:10.5194/acp-10-6917-2010, 2010
38. Quaas, J., Ming, Y., Menon, S., Takemura, T., Wang, M., Penner, J. E., Gettelman, A., Lohmann, U., Bellouin, N., Boucher, O., Sayer, A. M., Thomas, G. E., McComiskey, A., Feingold, G., Hoose, C., Kristjánsson, J. E., Liu, X., Balkanski, Y., Donner, L. J., Ginoux, P. A., Stier, P., Grandey, B., Feichter, J., Sednev, I., Bauer, S. E., Koch, D., Grainger, R. G., Kirkevåg, A., Iversen, T., Seland, Ø., Easter, R., Ghan, S. J., Rasch, P. J., Morrison, H., Lamarque, J.-F., Iacono, M. J., Kinne, S., and Schulz, M. Aerosol indirect effects-general circulation model intercomparison and evaluation with satellite data. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8697-8717, doi:10.5194/acp-9-8697-2009, 2009
39. Randles, C. A., Kinne, S., Myhre, G., Schulz, M., Stier, P., Fischer, J., Doppler, L., Highwood, E., Ryder, C., Harris, B., Huttunen, J., Ma, Y., Pinker, R. T., Mayer, B., Neubauer, D., Hitzenberger, R., Oreopoulos, L., Lee, D., Pitari, G., Di Genova, G., Quaas, J., Rose, F. G., Kato, S., Rumbold, S. T., Vardavas, I., Hatzianastassiou, N., Matsoukas, C., Yu, H., Zhang, F., Zhang, H., and Lu, P. Intercomparison of shortwave radiative transfer schemes in global aerosol modeling: results from the AeroCom Radiative Transfer Experiment. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2347-2379, doi:10.5194/acp-13-2347-2013, 2013
40. Roeckner, E., Brokopf, R., Esch, M., Giorgetta, M., Hagemann, S., Kornblueh, L., Manzini, E., Schlese, U., and Schulzweida, U. Sensitivity of Simulated Climate to Horizontal and Vertical Resolution in the ECHAM5 Atmosphere Model. J. Climate, 19, 3771-3791, 2006
41. Santese, M., De Tomasi, F., and Perrone, M. R. AERONET versus MODIS aerosol parameters at different spatial resolutions over southeast Italy. J. Geophys. Res., 112, D10214, doi:10.1029/2006JD007742, 2007
42. Sayer, A. M., Thomas, G. E., Palmer, P. I., and Grainger, R. G. Some implications of sampling choices on comparisons between satellite and model aerosol optical depth fields. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 10705-10716, doi:10.5194/acp-10-10705-2010, 2010
43. Schell, B., Ackermann, I. J., Hass, H., Binkowski, F. S., and Ebel, A. Modeling the formation of secondary organic aerosol within a comprehensive air quality model system. J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 106, 28275-28293, doi:10.1029/2001JD000384, 2001
44. Schulz, M., Textor, C., Kinne, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T., Boucher, O., Dentener, F., Guibert, S., Isaksen, I. S. A., Iversen, T., Koch, D., Kirkevåg, A., Liu, X., Montanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J. E., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, Ø., Stier, P., and Takemura, T. Radiative forcing by aerosols as derived from the AeroCom present-day and pre-industrial simulations. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5225-5246, doi:10.5194/acp-6-5225-2006, 2006
45. Schutgens, N. A. J., Nakata, M., and Nakajima, T. Validation and empirical correction of MODIS AOT and AE over ocean. Atmos. Meas. Tech., 6, 2455-2475, doi:10.5194/amt-6-2455-2013, 2013
46. Schutgens, N. A. J., Partridge, D. G., and Stier, P. The importance of temporal collocation for the evaluation of aerosol models with observations. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 1065-1079, doi:10.5194/acp-16-1065-2016, 2016
47. Seinfeld, J. H., and Pandis, S. N. Atmospheric chemistry and physics: from air pollution to climate change. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2nd Edn., 2006
48. Shinozuka, Y., and Redemann, J. Horizontal variability of aerosol optical depth observed during the ARCTAS airborne experiment. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 8489-8495, doi:10.5194/acp-11-8489-2011, 2011
49. Simpson, D., Benedictow, A., Berge, H., Bergström, R., Emberson, L. D., Fagerli, H., Flechard, C. R., Hayman, G. D., Gauss, M., Jonson, J. E., Jenkin, M. E., Nyíri, A., Richter, C., Semeena, V. S., Tsyro, S., Tuovinen, J.-P., Valdebenito, Á., and Wind, P. The EMEP MSC-W chemical transport model-Technical description. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 7825-7865, doi:10.5194/acp-12-7825-2012, 2012
50. Smith, K. R., Jerrett, M., Anderson, H. R., Burnett, R. T., Stone, V., Derwent, R., Atkinson, R. W., Cohen, A., Shonkoff, S. B., Krewski, D., Pope, C. A., Thun, M. J., and Thurston, G. Public health benefits of strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions: health implications of short-lived greenhouse pollutants. The Lancet, 374, 2091-103, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61716-5, 2009
51. Stier, P., Schutgens, N. A. J., Bellouin, N., Bian, H., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Ghan, S., Huneeus, N., Kinne, S., Lin, G., Ma, X., Myhre, G., Penner, J. E., Randles, C. A., Samset, B., Schulz, M., Takemura, T., Yu, F., Yu, H., and Zhou, C. Host model uncertainties in aerosol radiative forcing estimates: results from the Aero-Com Prescribed intercomparison study. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 3245-3270, doi:10.5194/acp-13-3245-2013, 2013
52. Stroud, C. A., Makar, P. A., Moran, M. D., Gong, W., Gong, S., Zhang, J., Hayden, K., Mihele, C., Brook, J. R., Abbatt, J. P. D., and Slowik, J. G. Impact of model grid spacing on regionaland urban-scale air quality predictions of organic aerosol. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 3107-3118, doi:10.5194/acp-11-3107-2011, 2011
53. Swap, R., Garstang, M., Greco, S., Talbot, R., and Kallberg, P. Saharan dust in the Amazon Basin. Tellus B, 44, 133-149, doi:10.1034/j.1600-0889.1992.t01-1-00005.x, 1992
54. Textor, C., Schulz, M., Guibert, S., Kinne, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Feichter, H., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Grini, A., Hendricks, J., Horowitz, L., Huang, P., Isaksen, I., Iversen, I., Kloster, S., Koch, D., Kirkevåg, A., Kristjansson, J. E., Krol, M., Lauer, A., Lamarque, J. F., Liu, X., Montanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, Ø., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Tie, X. Analysis and quantification of the diversities of aerosol life cycles within AeroCom. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1777-1813, doi:10.5194/acp-6-1777-2006, 2006
55. Textor, C., Schulz, M., Guibert, S., Kinne, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Feichter, J., Fillmore, D., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Grini, A., Hendricks, J., Horowitz, L., Huang, P., Isaksen, I. S. A., Iversen, T., Kloster, S., Koch, D., Kirkevåg, A., Kristjansson, J. E., Krol, M., Lauer, A., Lamarque, J. F., Liu, X., Montanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J. E., Pitari, G., Reddy, M. S., Seland, Ø., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Tie, X. The effect of harmonized emissions on aerosol properties in global models-An AeroCom experiment. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4489-4501, doi:10.5194/acp-7-4489-2007, 2007
56. Twomey, S. Pollution and the planetary albedo. Atmos. Environ., 8, 1251-1256, 1974
57. Vink, S., and Measures, C. The role of dust deposition in determining surface water distributions of Al and Fe in the SouthWest Atlantic. Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 48, 2787-2809, doi:10.1016/S0967-0645(01)00018-2, 2001
58. Weigum, N., Schutgens, N. A. J., and Stier, P. Effect of aerosol subgrid variability on aerosol optical depth and cloud condensation nuclei: Implications for global aerosol modelling. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., submitted, 2016
59. Weigum, N. M., Stier, P., Schwarz, J. P., Fahey, D. W., and Spackman, J. R. Scales of variability of black carbon plumes over the Pacific Ocean. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L15804, doi:10.1029/2012GL052127, 2012
60. Williamson, D. L. Convergence of aqua-planet simulations with increasing resolution in the Community Atmospheric Model. Version 3, Tellus A, 60, 848-862, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00339.x, 2008