Aerosol transmission of filoviruses

Viruses

Volumn 8, Issue 5, 2016, Pages

  Mekibib, Berhanu ^a,b   Ariën, Kevin K ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF TROPICAL MEDICINE   (Belgium)

^b HAWASSA UNIVERSITY   (Ethiopia)

Author keywords

Aerosol transmission; Ebola; Pigs; Veterinary medicine

Indexed keywords

AEROSOL; AGRICULTURAL WORKER; AIRBORNE INFECTION; EBOLAVIRUS; FILOVIRUS; HUMAN; INFECTION CONTROL; LUNG PARENCHYMA; NONHUMAN; ORAL SEX; PATHOGENESIS; PIG; PUBLIC HEALTH; RESPIRATORY TRACT MUCOSA; REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; REVIEW; VETERINARIAN; VIRAL CONTAMINATION; VIRUS CELL INTERACTION; VIRUS LOAD; VIRUS REPLICATION; VIRUS SURVIVAL; VIRUS TRANSMISSION; ANIMAL; BAT; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; EBOLA HEMORRHAGIC FEVER; PHYSIOLOGY; TRANSMISSION;

AEROSOL;

AEROSOLS; ANIMALS; CHIROPTERA; DISEASE TRANSMISSION, INFECTIOUS; EBOLAVIRUS; HEMORRHAGIC FEVER, EBOLA; HUMANS;

EID: 84969492044     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19994915     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/v8050148     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. Sanchez, A.; Geisbert, T.W.; Feldman, H. Filoviridae: Marburg and Ebola viruses. In Fields Virology, 5th ed.; Knipe, D.M., Howley, P.M., Eds.; LippincottWilliams &Wilkins: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2006; pp. 1409-1448.
2. Ansari, A.A. Clinical features and pathobiology of Ebolavirus infection. J. Autoimmun. 2014, 55, 1-9.
3. Kuhn, J.; Andersen, K.G.; Bào, Y.; Bavari, S.; Becker, S.; Bennett, R.S.; Bergman, N.H.; Blinkova, O.; Bradfute, S.; Brister, J.R. et al. Filovirus refseq entries: Evaluation and selection of filovirus type variants, type sequences, and names. Viruses 2014, 6, 3663-3682.
4. Martina, B.E.E.; Osterhaus, A.D. Filoviruses: A real pandemic threat? EMBO Mol. Med. 2009, 1, 10-18.
5. Gire, S.K.; Stremlau, M.; Andersen, K.G.; Schaffner, S.F.; Bjornson, Z.; Rubins, K.; Hensley, L.; McCormick, J.B.; Lander, E.S.; Garry, R.F. et al. Epidemiology. Emerging disease or diagnosis? Science 2012, 338, 750-752.
6. Negredo, A.; Palacios, G.; Vázquez-Morón, S.; González, F.; Dopazo, H.; Molero, I.; Juste, J.; Quetglas, J.; Savji, N.; de la Cruz Martinez, M. et al. Discovery of an ebolavirus-like filovirus in Europe. PLoS Pathog. 2011, 7, e1002304.
7. Galán-Huertaa, K.; Arellanos-Sotoa, D.; Rivas-Estillaa, A.M.; Cruza, V.B.; Ramos-Jiménezb, J. Ebola virus disease. Med. Univ. 2014, 16, 207-215.
8. Atherstone, C.; Roesel, K.; Grace, D. Ebola Risk Assessment in the Pig Value Chain in Uganda, ILRI Research Report 34. International Livestock Research Institute: Nairobi, Kenya, 2014. Available online: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/41667/rr34.pdf (accessed on 15 December 2015).
9. Pigott, D.M.; Golding, N.; Mylne, A.; Huang, Z.; Henry, A.J.; Weiss, D.J.; Brady, O.J.; Kraemer, M.U.; Smith, D.L.; Moyes, C.L. et al. Mapping the zoonotic niche of Ebola virus disease in Africa. Elife 2014, 3, e04395.
10. Wolfe, N.D.; Dunavan, C.P.; Diamond, J. Origins of major human infectious diseases. Nature 2007, 447, 279-283.
11. Groseth, A.; Feldmann, H.; Strong, J.E. The ecology of Ebola virus. Trends Microbiol. 2007, 15, 408-416.
12. Pommerville, J.C. Fundamentals of Microbiology. Body Systems, 3rd ed.; Jones and Bartlett Learning: Burlingtone, MA, USA, 2014; pp. 816-817.
13. WHO Case Report. Available online: http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/en/(accessed on 20 December 2015).
14. Khan, A.S.; Tshioko, F.K.; Heymann, D.L.; Le Guenno, B.; Nabeth, P.; Kerstiëns, B.; Fleerackers, Y.; Kilmarx, P.H.; Rodier, G.R.; Nkuku, O. et al. The reemergence of Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. J. Infect. Dis. 1999, 179, S76-S86.
15. Dowell, S.F.; Mukunu, R.; Ksiazek, T.G.; Khan, A.S.; Rollin, P.E.; Peters, C.J. Transmission of Ebola hemorrhagic fever: A study of risk factors in family members, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. J. Infect. Dis. 1999, 179, S87-S91.
16. Deen, G.F.; Knust, B.; Broutet, N.; Sesay, F.R.; Formenty, P.; Ross, C.; Thorson, A.E.; Massaquoi, T.A.; Marrinan, J.E.; Ervin, E. et al. Ebola RNA persistence in Semen of Ebola virus disease survivors-Preliminary report. N. Engl. J. Med. 2015.
17. Mate, S.E.; Kugelman, J.R.; Nyenswah, T.G.; Ladner, J.T.; Wiley, M.R.; Cordier-Lassalle, T.; Christie, A.; Schroth, G.P.; Gross, S.M.; Davies-Wayne, G.J. et al. Molecular evidence of sexual transmission of Ebola Virus. N. Engl. J. Med. 2015, 373, 2448-2454.
18. Brainard, J.; Pond, K.; Hooper, L.; Edmunds, K.; Hunter, P. Presence and persistence of Ebola or marburg virus in patients and survivors: A rapid systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2016, 10, e0004475.
19. Feldmann, H.; Geisbert, T.W. Ebola haemorrhagic fever. Lancet 2011, 377, 849-862.
20. Geisbert, T.W.; Hensley, L.E.; Larsen, T.; Young, H.A.; Reed, D.S.; Geisbert, J.B.; Scott, D.P.; Kagan, E.; Jahrling, P.B.; Davis, K.J. et al. Pathogenesis of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in cynomolgus macaques: Evidence that dendritic cells are early and sustained targets of infection. Am. J. Pathol. 2003, 163, 2347-2370.
21. Zaki, S.R.; Goldsmith, C.S. Pathologic features of filovirus infections in humans. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 1999, 235, 97-116.
22. Martines, R.B.; Ng, D.L.; Greer, P.W.; Rollin, P.E.; Zaki, S.R. Tissue and cellular tropism, pathology and pathogenesis of Ebola and Marburg viruses. J. Pathol. 2015, 235, 153-174.
23. Osterholm, M.T.; Moore, K.A.; Kelley, N.S.; Brosseau, L.M.; Wong, G.; Murphy, F.A.; Peters, C.J.; LeDuc, J.W.; Russell, P.K.; Van Herp, M. et al. Transmission of Ebola viruses: What we know and what we do not know. mBio 2015, 6, e00137-15.
24. Murray, P.; Rosenthal, K.; Pfaller, M. Medical Microbiology, 7th ed.; Elsevier Ltd.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2013; pp. 536-538.
25. Twenhafel, N.A.; Mattix, M.E.; Johnson, J.C.; Robinson, C.G.; Pratt, W.D.; Cashman, K.A.; Wahl-Jensen, V.; Terry, C.; Olinger, G.G.; Hensley, L.E. et al. Pathology of experimental aerosol Zaire ebolavirus infection in rhesus macaques. Vet. Pathol. 2013, 50, 514-529.
26. Bradfute, S.B.; Warfield, K.L.; Bavari, S. Functional CD8+ T cell responses in lethal Ebola virus infection. J. Immunol. 2008, 180, 4058-4066.
27. Messaoudi, I.; Amarasinghe, G.K.; Basler, C.F. Filovirus pathogenesis and immune evasion: Insights from Ebola virus and Marburg virus. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2015, 13, 663-676.
28. Geisbert, T.W.; Young, H.A.; Jahrling, P.B.; Davis, K.J.; Larsen, T.; Kagan, E.; Hensley, L.E. Pathogenesis of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in primate models: Evidence that haemorrhage is not a direct effect of virus-induced cytolysis of endothelial cells. Am. J. Pathol. 2003, 163, 2371-2382.
29. Sanchez, A.; Lukwiya, M.; Bausch, D.; Mahanty, S.; Sanchez, A.J.; Wagoner, K.D.; Rollin, P.E. Analysis of human peripheral blood samples from fatal and nonfatal cases of Ebola (Sudan) hemorrhagic fever: Cellular responses, virus load, and nitric oxide levels. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 10370-10377.
30. Ryabchikova, E.I.; Kolesnikova, L.V.; Luchko, S.V. An analysis of features of pathogenesis in two animal models of Ebola virus infection. J. Infect. Dis. 1999, 179, 199-202.
31. Na, W.; Park, N.; Yeom, M.; Song, D. Ebola outbreak inWestern Africa 2014: What is going on with Ebola virus? Clin. Exp. Vaccine Res. 2015, 4, 17-22.
32. Feldmann, H. Ebola-A growing threat? N. Eng. J. Med. 2014, 371, 1375-1378.
33. Chiappelli, F.; Bakhordarian, A.; Thames, A.D.; Du, A.M.; Jan, A.L.; Nahcivan, M.; Nguyen, M.T.; Sama, N.; Manfrini, E.; Piva, F. et al. Ebola: Translational science considerations. J. Transl. Med. 2015, 13, 1-29.
34. Leroy, E.M.; Epelboin, A.; Mondonge, V.; Pourrut, X.; Gonzalez, J.; Muyembe-Tamfum, J.; Formenty, P. Human Ebola outbreak resulting from direct exposure to fruit bats in Luebo, Democratic Republic of Congo, 2007. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2009, 9, 723-728.
35. Walsh, P.D.; Biek, R.; Real, L.A. Wave-Like Spread of Ebola Zaire. PLoS Biol. 2005, 3, e371.
36. Wahl-Jensen, V.; Radoshitzky, S.R.; de Kok-Mercado, F.; Taylor, S.L.; Bavari, S.; Jahrling, P.B.; Kuhn, J.H. Role of rodents and bats in human viral hemorrhagic fevers. In Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers; Singh, S.K., Ruzek, D., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2010; Chapter 7.
37. Feldmann, H.; Wahl-Jensen, V.; Jones, S.M.; Ströher, U. Ebola virus ecology: A continuing mystery. Trend Microbiol. 2004, 12, 433-437.
38. Gonzalez, J.P.; Herbreteau, V.; Morvan, J.; Leroy, E.M. Ebola virus circulation in Africa: A balance between clinical expression and epidemiological silence. Bull. Soc. Pathol. Exot. 2005, 98, 210-217.
39. Muyembe-Tamfum, J.J.; Mulangu, S.; Masumu, J.; Kayembe, J.M.; Kemp, A.; Paweska, J.T. Ebola virus outbreaks in Africa: Past and present. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 2012, 79, 1-8.
40. Leroy, E.M.; Kumulungui, B.; Pourrut, X.; Rouquet, P.; Hassanin, A.; Yaba, P.; Délicat, A.; Paweska, J.T.; Gonzalez, J.P.; Swanepoel, R. Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus. Nature 2005, 438, 575-576.
41. Olival, K.J.; Hayman, D.T. Filoviruses in bats: Current knowledge and future directions. Viruses 2014, 6, 1759-1788.
42. Hayman, D.T.; Emmerich, P.; Yu, M.; Wang, L.F.; Suu-Ire, R.; Fooks, A.R.; Cunningham, A.A.; Wood, J.L. Long-term survival of an urban fruit bat seropositive for Ebola and Lagos bat viruses. PLoS ONE 2010, 5, e11978.
43. Pourrut, X.; Souris, M.; Towner, J.S.; Rollin, P.E.; Nichol, S.T.; Gonzalez, J.P.; Leroy, E. Large serological survey showing cocirculation of Ebola and Marburg viruses in Gabonese bat populations, and a high seroprevalence of both viruses in Rousettus aegyptiacus. BMC Infect. Dis. 2009, 9, 159.
44. Pourrut, X.; Délicat, A.; Rollin, P.E.; Ksiazek, T.G.; Gonzalez, J.P.; Leroy, E.M. Spatial and temporal patterns of Zaire ebolavirus antibody prevalence in the possible reservoir bat species. J. Infect. Dis. 2007, 196, S176-S183.
45. Towner, J.S.; Amman, B.R.; Sealy, T.K.; Carroll, S.A.; Comer, J.A.; Kemp, A.; Swanepoel, R.; Paddock, C.D.; Balinandi, S.; Khristova, M.L. et al. Isolation of genetically diverse Marburg viruses from Egyptian fruit bats. PLoS Pathog. 2009, 5, e1000536.
46. Hayman, D.T.; Yu, M.; Crameri, G.; Wang, L.F.; Suu-Ire, R.; Wood, J.L.; Cunningham, A.A. Ebola virus antibodies in fruit bats, Ghana, West Africa. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2012, 18, 1207-1209.
47. Leirs, H.; Mills, J.N.; Krebs, J.W.; Childs, J.E.; Akaibe, D.; Woollen, N.; Ludwig, G.; Peters, C.J.; Ksiazek, T.G. Search for the Ebola virus reservoir in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo: Reflections on a vertebrate collection. J. Infect. Dis. 1999, 179, 155-163.
48. Swanepoel, R.; Leman, P.A.; Burt, F.J.; Zachariades, N.A.; Braack, L.E.O. Experimental inoculation of plants and animals with Ebola virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 1996, 2, 321-325.
49. Gupta, M.; Mahanty, S.; Greer, P.; Towner, J.S.; Shieh, W.; Zaki, S.R.; Ahmed, R.; Rollin, P.E. Persistent infection with Ebola virus under conditions of partial immunity. J. Virol. 2004, 78, 958-967.
50. Leroy, E.M.; Rouquet, P.; Formenty, P.; Souquière, S.; Kilbourne, A.; Froment, J.M.; Bermejo, M.; Smit, S.; Karesh, W.; Swanepoel, R. et al. Multiple Ebola virus transmission events and rapid decline of central African wildlife. Science 2004, 303, 387-390.
51. Baron, R.C.; McCormick, J.B.; Zubeir, O.A. Ebola virus disease in southern Sudan: Hospital dissemination and intrafamilial spread. Bull. World Health Organ. 1983, 61, 997-1003.
52. Morvan, J.M.; Deubel, V.; Gounon, P.; Nakouné, E.; Barrière, P.; Murri, S.; Perpète, O.; Selekon, B.; Coudrier, D.; Gautier-Hion, A. et al. Identification of Ebola virus sequences present as RNA or DNA in organs of terrestrial small mammals of the Central African Republic. Microbes Infect. 1999, 1, 1193-1201.
53. Leroy, E.M.; Telfer, P.; Kumulungui, B.; Yaba, P.; Rouquet, P.; Roques, P.; Gonzalez, J.P.; Ksiazek, T.G.; Rollin, P.E.; Nerrienet, E. A serological survey of Ebola virus infection in central African nonhuman primates. J. Infect. Dis. 2004, 190, 1895-1899.
54. Harcourt, A.H. Is the gorilla a threatened species? How should we judge? Biol. Conserv. 1996, 75, 165-176.
55. Nelson, K.E. Emerging and new infectious diseases. In Infectious Disease Epidemiology: Theory and Practice, 3rd ed.; Nelson, K.E., Williams, C.M., Eds.; Jones and Bartlett learning, LLC: Burlington, MA, USA, 2014; pp. 354-355.
56. Brainard, J.; Hooper, L.; Pond, K.; Edmunds, K.; Hunter, P.R. Risk factors for transmission of Ebola or Marburg virus disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2015.
57. Vogel, G. Genomes reveal start of Ebola outbreak. Science 2014, 345, 989-990.
58. Prescott, J.; Bushmaker, T.; Fischer, R.; Miazgowicz, K.; Judson, S.; Munster, V.J. Postmortem Stability of Ebola Virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2015, 21, 856-859.
59. Bausch, D.G.; Towner, J.S.; Dowell, S.F.; Kaducu, F.; Lukwiya, M.; Sanchez, A.; Nichol, S.T.; Ksiazek, T.G.; Rollin, P.E. Assessment of the risk of Ebola virus transmission from bodily fluids and fomites. J. Infect. Dis. 2007, 196, S142-S147.
60. Formenty, P.; Leroy, E.M.; Epelboin, A.; Libama, F.; Lenzi, M.; Sudeck, H.; Yaba, P.; Allarangar, Y.; Boumandouki, P.; Nkounkou, V.B. et al. Detection of Ebola virus in oral fluid specimens during outbreaks of Ebola virus hemorrhagic fever in the Republic of Congo. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2006, 42, 1521-1526.
61. Richards, G.A.; Murphy, S.; Jobson, R.; Mer, M.; Zinman, C.; Taylor, R.; Swanepoel, R.; Duse, A.; Sharp, G.; De La Rey, I.C. et al. Unexpected Ebola virus in a tertiary setting: Clinical and epidemiologic aspects. Crit. Care Med. 2000, 28, 240-244.
62. Sousa, Z.L. Key features of Ebola hemorrhagic fever: A review. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2014, 4, 841-844.
63. Rogstad, K.E.; Tunbridge, A. Ebola virus as a sexually transmitted infection. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 2015, 28, 83-85.
64. Christie, A.; Davies-Wayne, G.J.; Cordier-Lasalle, T.; Blackley, D.J.; Laney, A.S.; Williams, D.E.; Shinde, S.A.; Badio, M.; Lo, T.; Mate, S.E. et al. Possible sexual transmission of Ebola virus-Liberia, 2015. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 2015, 64, 479-481.
65. Germain, M. Collection of mammals and arthropods during the epidemic of hemorrhagic fever in Zaire. In Ebola Virus Hemorrhagic Fever; Pattyn, S.R., Ed.; Elsevier Biomedical: Amsterdam, The Netherland, 1978; pp. 185-189.
66. Reiter, P.; Turell, M.; Coleman, R.; Miller, B.; Maupin, G.; Liz, J.; Kuehne, A.; Barth, J.; Geisbert, J.; Dohm, D. et al. Field investigations of an outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995: Arthropod studies. J. Infect. Dis. 1999, 179 (Suppl. S1), S148-S154.
67. Turell, M.J.; Bressler, D.S.; Rossi, C.A. Short Report: Lack of virus replication in arthropods after intrathoracic inoculation of Ebola Reston virus. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1996, 55, 89-90.
68. Roels, T.H.; Bloom, A.S.; Buffington, J.; Muhungu, G.L.; Mac Kenzie, W.R.; Khan, A.S.; Ndambi, R.; Noah, D.L.; Rolka, H.R.; Peters, C.J. et al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995: Risk factors for patients without a reported exposure. J. Infect. Dis. 1999, 179, S92-S97.
69. Johnson, E.; Jaax, N.; White, J.; Jahrling, P. Lethal experimental infections of rhesus monkeys by aerosolized Ebola virus. Int. J. Exp. Pathol. 1995, 76, 227-236.
70. Jones, R.M.; Brosseau, L.M.; Nov, S. COMMENTARY: Ebola Virus Transmission via Contact and Aerosol-A New Paradigm; Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy, University of Minnesota: Minneapolis, MN, USA, 2014.
71. Francesconi, P.; Yoti, Z.; Declich, S.; Onek, P.A.; Fabiani, M.; Olango, J.; Andraghetti, R.; Rollin, P.E.; Opira, C.; Greco, D. et al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever transmission and risk factors of contacts, Uganda. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2003, 9, 1430-1437.
72. Barrette, R.W.; Metwally, S.A.; Rowland, J.M.; Xu, L.; Zaki, S.R.; Nichol, S.T.; Rollin, P.E.; Towner, J.S.; Shieh, W.J.; Batten, B. et al. Discovery of swine as a host for the Reston ebolavirus. Science 2009, 325, 204-206.
73. Pan, Y.; Zhang, W.; Cui, L.; Hua, X.; Wang, M.; Zeng, Q. Reston virus in domestic pigs in China. Arch. Virol. 2014, 159, 1129-1132.
74. Sayama, Y.; Demetria, C.; Saito, M.; Azul, R.R.; Taniguchi, S.; Fukushi, S.; Yoshikawa, T.; Iizuka, I.; Mizutani, T.; Kurane, I. et al. A seroepidemiologic study of Reston ebolavirus in swine in the Philippines. BMC Vet. Res. 2012, 8, 1-9.
75. Marsh, G.; Haining, J.; Robinson, R.; Foord, A.; Yamada, M.; Barr, J.A.; Payne, J.; White, J.; Yu, M.; Bingham, J. et al. Ebola Reston virus infection of pigs: Clinical significance and transmission potential. J. Infect. Dis. 2011, 204, S804-S809.
76. Bausch, D.G. Ebola virus as a foodborne pathogen? Cause for consideration, but not panic. J. Infect. Dis. 2011, 204, 179-181.
77. World Health Organization. WHO Experts Consultation on Ebola Reston Pathogenicity in Humans; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2009.
78. Formenty, P. Ebola Virus Disease. In Emerging Infectious Diseases: Clinical Case Studies; Ergönül, O., Can, F., Madoff, L., Akova, M., Eds.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2014; Chapter 9; pp. 121-134.
79. Lo, M.K.; Rota, P.A. The emergence of Nipah virus, a highly pathogenic paramyxovirus. J. Clin. Virol. 2008, 43, 396-400.
80. Nfon, C.K.; Leung, A.; Smith, G.; Embury-Hyatt, C.; Kobinger, G.; Weingartl, H.M. Immuno-pathogenesis of severe acute respiratory disease in Zaire ebolavirus-infected pigs. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e61904.
81. Zumbrun, E.E.; Bloomfield, H.A.; Dye, J.M.; Hunter, T.C.; Dabisch, P.A.; Garza, N.L.; Bramel, N.R.; Baker, R.J.; Williams, R.D.; Nichols, D.K. et al. A characterization of aerosolized sudan virus infection in African green monkeys, cynomolgus macaques, and rhesus macaques. Viruses 2012, 4, 2115-2136.
82. Twenhafel, N.A.; Shaia, C.I.; Bunton, T.E.; Shamblin, J.D.; Wollen, S.E.; Pitt, L.M.; Sizemore, D.R.; Ogg, M.M.; Johnston, S.C. Experimental aerosolized guinea pig-adapted Zaire Ebolavirus (variant: Mayinga) causes lethal pneumonia in guinea pigs. Vet. Pathol. 2015, 52, 21-25.
83. Kobinger, G.P.; Leung, A.; Neufeld, J.; Richardson, J.S.; Falzarano, D.; Smith, G.; Tierney, K.; Patel, A.; Weingartl, H.M. Replication, pathogenicity, shedding, and transmission of Zaire ebolavirus in pigs. J. Infect. Dis. 2011, 204, 200-208.
84. Weingartl, H.M.; Embury-Hyatt, C.; Nfon, C.; Leung, A.; Smith, G.; Kobinger, G. Transmission of Ebola virus from pigs to non-human primates. Sci. Rep. 2012, 2.
85. Jaax, N.; Jahrling, P.; Geisbert, T.; Geisbert, J.; Steele, K.; McKee, K.; Nagley, D.; Johnson, E.; Jaax, G.; Peters, C. Transmission of Ebola virus (Zaire strain) to uninfected control monkeys in a biocontainment laboratory. Lancet 1995, 346, 1669-1671.
86. Tellier, R. Review of aerosol transmission of influenza A virus. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2006, 12, 1657-1662.
87. Lindsley, W.G.; Blachere, F.M.; Thewlis, R.E.; Vishnu, A.; Davis, K.A.; Cao, G.; Palmer, J.E.; Clark, K.E.; Fisher, M.A.; Khakoo, R. et al. Measurements of airborne influenza virus in aerosol particles from human coughs. PLoS ONE 2010, 5, e15100.
88. P’Iankov, O.V.; Sergeev, A.N.; P’Iankova, O.G.; Chepurnov, A.A. Experimental Ebola fever in Macaca mulatta. Vopr. Virusol. 1995, 40, 113-115.
89. Wong, G.; Qiu, X.; Richardson, J.S.; Cutts, T.; Collignon, B.; Gren, J.; Aviles, J.; Embury-Hyatt, C.; Kobinger, G.P. Ebola virus transmission in guinea pigs. J. Virol. 2015, 89, 1314-1323.
90. Judson, S.; Prescott, J.; Munster, V. Understanding Ebola virus transmission. Review. Viruses 2015, 7, 511-521.
91. Piercy, T.J.; Smither, S.J.; Steward, J.A.; Eastaugh, L.; Lever, M.S. The survival of filoviruses in liquids, on solid substrates and in a dynamic aerosol. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2010, 109, 1531-1539.
92. Cox, C.S. Stability of airborne microbes and allergens. In Bioaerosol Handbook; Cox, C.S., Wathes, C.M., Eds.; CRC Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1995; pp. 77-99.
93. Stärk, K.D.C. The Role of Infectious Aerosols in Disease Transmission in Pigs. Review. Vet. J. 1999, 158, 164-181.
94. Brosseau, L.M.; Jones, R. COMMENTARY: Health Workers Need Optimal Respiratory Protection for Ebola. 17 September 2014. Available online: http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/news-perspective/2014/09/commentary-health-workers-need-optimal-respiratory-protection-ebola (accessed on 1 June 2015).
95. Sagripanti, J.L.; Lytle, C.D. Sensitivity to ultraviolet radiation of Lassa, vaccinia, and Ebola viruses dried on surfaces. Arch. Virol. 2011, 156, 489-494.
96. Caswell, J.L.; Williams, K.J. The Respiratory System. In Jubb, Kennedy and Palmer’s Pathology of Domestic Animals, 5th ed.; Maxie, M.G., Ed.; Saunders: London, UK, 2007; Volume 2, pp. 524-567.
97. Alimonti, J.; Leung, A.; Jones, S.; Gren, J.; Qiu, X.; Fernando, L.; Balcewich, B.; Wong, G.; Ströher, U.; Grolla, A. et al. Evaluation of transmission risks associated with in vivo replication of several high containment pathogens in a biosafety level 4 laboratory. Sci. Rep. 2014, 4.
98. Baskerville, A.; Bowen, E.T.W.; Platt, G.S.; McArdell, L.B.; Simpson, D.I. The pathology of experimental Ebola virus infection in monkeys. J. Pathol. 1978, 125, 131-138.
99. Brown, C.; Arkell, P.; Rokadiya, S. Ebola virus disease: The “Black Swan” in West Africa. Trop. Dr. 2015, 45, 2-5.
100. Gire, S.K.; Goba, A.; Andersen, K.G.; Sealfon, R.S.; Park, D.J.; Kanneh, L.; Jalloh, S.; Momoh, M.; Fullah, M.; Dudas, G. et al. Genomic surveillance elucidates Ebola virus origin and transmission during the 2014 outbreak. Science 2014, 345, 1369-1372.
101. Gottlieb, S. Can Ebola Go Airborne? Available online: http://www.forbes.com/sites/scottgottlieb/2014/09/03/can-ebola-go-airborne/#12877533c29b (accessed on 1 June 2015).
102. Irving, W.L. Ebola virus transmission. Int. J. Exp. Pathol. 1995, 76, 225-226.
103. Miranda, M.E.G.; Miranda, N.L.J. Reston Ebolavirus in humans and animals in the Philippines: A review. J. Infect. Dis. 2011, 204, S757-S760.
104. Nicas, M.; Nazaroff, W.W.; Hubbard, A. Toward understanding the risk of secondary airborne infection: Emission of respirable pathogens. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 2005, 2, 143-154.
105. Knight, V. Airborne transmission and pulmonary deposition of respiratory viruses. In Airborne Transmission and Airborne Infection. IVth International Symposium on Aerobiology; Hers, J.F.P., Winkler, K.C., Eds.; Oosthoek Publishing Company: Utrecht, The Netherlands, 1973; pp. 175-182.
106. Zayas, G.; Chiang, M.C.; Wong, E.; MacDonald, F.; Lange, C.F.; Senthilselvan, A.; King, M. Cough aerosol in healthy participants: Fundamental knowledge to optimize droplet-spread infectious respiratory disease management. BMC Pulm. Med. 2012, 12, 1-11.
107. Siegel, J.D.; Rhinehart, E.; Jackson, M.; Chiarello, L. Guideline for isolation precautions: Preventing transmission of infectious agents in healthcare settings. Am. J. Infect. Control 2007, 35, S65-S164.
108. Roy, C.J.; Milton, D.K. Airborne transmission of communicable infection-The elusive pathway. N. Eng. J. Med. 2004, 350, 1710-1712.
109. Franz, D.R.; Jahrling, P.B.; Friedlander, A.M.; McClain, D.J.; Hoover, D.L.; Bryne, W.R.; Pavlin, J.A.; Christopher, G.W.; Eitzen, E.M. Jr. Clinical recognition and management of patients exposed to biological warfare agents. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1997, 278, 399-411.
110. Leffel, E.K.; Reed, D.S. Marburg and Ebolavirus as aerosol threats. Biosecur. Bioterror. 2004, 2, 186-191.