Stratospheric ozone changes under solar geoengineering: Implications for UV exposure and air quality

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 16, Issue 6, 2016, Pages 4191-4203

  Nowack, Peer Johannes ^a   Abraham, Nathan Luke ^a   Braesicke, Peter ^b   Pyle, John Adrian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^b KARLSRUHE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AIR QUALITY; ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY; CARBON DIOXIDE ENRICHMENT; GLOBAL WARMING; OZONE; PHOTOLYSIS; SOLAR RADIATION; STRATOSPHERE; TROPOSPHERE; ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION;

EID: 84964355187     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-16-4191-2016     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. Avnery, S., Mauzerall, D. L., Liu, J., and Horowitz, L. W.: Global crop yield reductions due to surface ozone exposure: 2. Year 2030 potential crop production losses and economic damage under two scenarios of O3 pollution, Atmos. Environ., 45, 2297-2309, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.01.002, 2011.
2. Bais, A. F., Tourpali, K., Kazantzidis, A., Akiyoshi, H., Bekki, S., Braesicke, P., Chipperfield, M. P., Dameris, M., Eyring, V., Garny, H., Iachetti, D., Jöckel, P., Kubin, A., Langematz, U., Mancini, E., Michou, M., Morgenstern, O., Nakamura, T., Newman, P. A., Pitari, G., Plummer, D. A., Rozanov, E., Shepherd, T. G., Shibata, K., Tian, W., and Yamashita, Y.: Projections of UV radiation changes in the 21st century: Impact of ozone recovery and cloud effects, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 7533-7545, doi:10.5194/acp-11-7533-2011, 2011.
3. Bais, A. F., McKenzie, R. L., Bernhard, G., Aucamp, P. J., Ilyas, M., Madronich, S., and Tourpali, K.: Ozone depletion and climate change: impacts on UV radiation, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 14, 19-52, doi:10.1039/C4PP90032D, 2015.
4. Bala, G., Duffy, P. B., and Taylor, K. E.: Impact of geoengineering schemes on the global hydrological cycle, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 105, 7664-7669, doi:10.1073/pnas.0711648105, 2008.
5. Banerjee, A., Maycock, A. C., Archibald, A. T., Abraham, N. L., Telford, P., Braesicke, P., and Pyle, J. A.: Drivers of changes in stratospheric and tropospheric ozone between year 2000 and 2100, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 16, 2727-2746, doi:10.5194/acp-16-2727-2016, 2016.
6. Bian, H. and Prather, M. J.: Fast-J2: Accurate simulation of stratospheric photolysis in global chemical models, J. Atmos. Chem., 41, 281-296, doi:10.1023/A:1014980619462, 2002.
7. Braesicke, P., Morgenstern, O. and Pyle, J.: Might dimming the sun change atmospheric ENSO teleconnections as we know them?, Atmos. Sci. Lett., 12, 184-188, doi:10.1002/asl.294, 2011.
8. Budyko, M. I.: Climatic changes, American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C., 261 pp., 1977.
9. Caldeira, K. and Wickett, M. E.: Oceanography: Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH, Nature, 425, 365, doi:10.1038/425365a, 2003.
10. Cicerone, R. J.: Geoengineering: Encouraging research and overseeing implementation, Climatic Change, 77, 221-226, doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9102-x, 2006.
11. Crutzen, P. J.: Albedo enhancement by stratospheric sulfur injections: A contribution to resolve a policy dilemma?, Climatic Change, 77, 211-219, doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9101-y, 2006.
12. Cusack, S.: Investigating k distribution methods for parameterizing gaseous absorption in the Hadley Centre Climate Model, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 2051-2057, 1999.
13. den Outer, P. N., Slaper, H., and Tax, R. B.: UV radiation in the Netherlands: Assessing long-term variability and trends in relation to ozone and clouds, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, D02203, doi:10.1029/2004JD004824, 2005.
14. Early, J. T.: Space-based solar shield to offset greenhouse effect, J. Br. Interplanet. Soc., 42, 567-569, 1989.
15. Edwards, J. M. and Slingo, A.: Studies with a flexible new radiation code. I: Choosing a comnfiguration for a largescale model, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 122, 689-719, doi:10.1002/qj.49712253107, 1996.
16. Fels, S. B., Mahlman, J. D., Schwarzkopf, M. D., and Sinclair, R. W.: Stratospheric Sensitivity to Perturbations in Ozone and Carbon Dioxide: Radiative and Dynamical Response, J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2265-2297, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<2265:SSTPIO>2.0.CO;2, 1980.
17. Ferraro, A. J., Charlton-Perez, A. J., and Highwood, E. J.: Stratospheric dynamics and midlatitude jets under geoengineering with space mirrors and sulfate and titania aerosols, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 120, 414-429, doi:10.1002/2014JD022734, 2015.
18. Fioletov, V. E., McArthur, L. J. B., Mathews, T. W., and Marrett, L.: On the relationship between erythemal and vitamin D action spectrum weighted ultraviolet radiation, J. Photochem. Photobiol. B, 95, 9-16, doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2008.11.014, 2009.
19. 2 induced climate change, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2141-2144, doi:10.1029/1999GL006086, 2000.
20. Govindasamy, B., Thompson, S., Duffy, P. B., Caldeira, K., and Delire, C.: Impact of geoengineering schemes on the terrestrial biosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 2061, doi:10.1029/2002GL015911, 2002.
21. 2, Global Planet. Change, 37, 157-168, doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(02)00195-9, 2003.
22. Haigh, J. D. and Pyle, J. A.: Ozone perturbation experiments in a two-dimensional circulation model, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 108, 551-574, doi:10.1002/qj.49710845705, 1982.
23. Heckendorn, P., Weisenstein, D., Fueglistaler, S., Luo, B. P., Rozanov, E., Schraner, M., Thomason, L. W., and Peter, T.: The Impact of Geoengineering Aerosols on Stratospheric Temperature and Ozone, Environ. Res. Lett., 4, 045108, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/4/4/045108, 2011.
24. Hewitt, H. T., Copsey, D., Culverwell, I. D., Harris, C. M., Hill, R. S. R., Keen, A. B., McLaren, A. J., and Hunke, E. C.: Design and implementation of the infrastructure of HadGEM3: The next-generation Met Office climate modelling system, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 223-253, doi:10.5194/gmd-4-223-2011, 2011.
25. Holick, M. F.: The Cutaneous Photosynthesis of Previtamin D3: A Unique Photoendocrine System, J. Invest. Dermatol., 77, 51-58, doi:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12479237, 1981.
26. Holmes, C. D., Prather, M. J., Søvde, O. A., and Myhre, G.: Future methane, hydroxyl, and their uncertainties: Key climate and emission parameters for future predictions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 285-302, doi:10.5194/acp-13-285-2013, 2013.
27. Holton, J. R., Haynes, P. H., McIntyre, M. E., Douglass, A. R., Rood, R. B., and Pfister, L.: Stratosphere-Troposphere Exchange, Rev. Geophys., 33, 403-439, doi:10.1029/95RG02097, 1995.
28. Hunke, E. C. and Lipscomb, W. H.: the Los Alamos sea ice model documentation and software user's manual, Version 4.0, LACC-06-012, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 2008.
29. Hunter, J. D.: Matplotlib: A 2D graphics environment, Comput. Sci. Eng., 9, 90-95, 2007.
30. 2 environment, Earth's Futur., 2, 331-340, doi:10.1002/2014EF000244, 2014.
31. Jones, A., Haywood, J., and Boucher, O.: A comparison of the climate impacts of geoengineering by stratospheric SO2 injection and by brightening of marine stratocumulus cloud, Atmos. Sci. Lett., 12, 176-183, doi:10.1002/asl.291, 2011.
32. 2-induced cooling in the middle atmosphere: Photochemical analysis of the ozone radiative feedback, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 109, D24103, doi:10.1029/2004JD005093, 2004.
33. Keith, D. W.: Geoengineering the Climate: History and Prospect, Annu. Rev. Energy Environ., 25, 245-284, doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.25.1.245, 2000.
34. Kravitz, B., Robock, A., Boucher, O., Schmidt, H., Taylor, K. E., Stenchikov, G., and Schulz, M.: The Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP), Atmos. Sci. Lett., 12, 162-167, doi:10.1002/asl.316, 2011.
35. Kravitz, B., Robock, A., Shindell, D. T., and Miller, M. A.: Sensitivity of stratospheric geoengineering with black carbon to aerosol size and altitude of injection, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D09203, doi:10.1029/2011JD017341, 2012.
36. Kravitz, B., Robock, A., Forster, P. M., Haywood, J. M., Lawrence, M. G., and Schmidt, H.: An overview of the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 13103-13107, doi:10.1002/2013JD020569, 2013a.
37. Kravitz, B., Caldeira, K., Boucher, O., Robock, A., Rasch, P. J., Alterskjær, K., Karam, D. B., Cole, J. N. S., Curry, C. L., Haywood, J. M., Irvine, P. J., Ji, D., Jones, A., Kristjánsson, J. E., Lunt, D. J., Moore, J. C., Niemeier, U., Schmidt, H., Schulz, M., Singh, B., Tilmes, S., Watanabe, S., Yang, S., and Yoon, J. H.: Climate model response from the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 8320-8332, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50646, 2013b.
38. Kuebbeler, M., Lohmann, U., and Feichter, J.: Effects of stratospheric sulfate aerosol geo-engineering on cirrus clouds, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L23803, doi:10.1029/2012GL053797, 2012.
39. Lin, M., Horowitz, L. W., Oltmans, S. J., Fiore, A. M., and Fan, S.: Tropospheric ozone trends at Mauna Loa Observatory tied to decadal climate variability, Nat. Geosci., 7, 136-143, doi:10.1038/ngeo2066, 2014.
40. Lin, M., Fiore, A. M., Horowitz, L.W., Langford, A. O., Oltmans, S. J., Tarasick, D., and Rieder, H. E.: Climate variability modulates western US ozone air quality in spring via deep stratospheric intrusions, Nat. Commun., 6, 7105, doi:10.1038/ncomms8105, 2015.
41. Lunt, D. J., Ridgwell, A., Valdes, P. J., and Seale, A.: Sunshade World: A fully coupled GCM evaluation of the climatic impacts of geoengineering, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L12710, doi:10.1029/2008GL033674, 2008.
42. Madec, G., Delecluse, P., Imbard, M. and Levy, C.: OPA 8.1 ocean general circulation model-reference manual, Note du Pole de modélisation, Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace (IPSL), France, 1998.
43. Madronich, S.: Analytic formula for the clear-sky UV index, Photochem. Photobiol., 83, 1537-1538, doi:10.1111/j.1751-1097.2007.00200.x, 2007.
44. Madronich, S., Shao, M., Wilson, S. R., Solomon, K. R., Longstreth, J. D., and Tang, X. Y.: Changes in air quality and tropospheric composition due to depletion of stratospheric ozone and interactions with changing climate: implications for human and environmental health, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 14, 149-169, doi:10.1039/C4PP90037E, 2015.
45. Matthews, H. D. and Caldeira, K.: Transient climate-carbon simulations of planetary geoengineering, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 104, 9949-9954, doi:10.1073/pnas.0700419104, 2007.
46. Maycock, A. C., Shine, K. P., and Joshi, M. M.: The temperature response to stratospheric water vapour changes, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 137, 1070-1082, doi:10.1002/qj.822, 2011.
47. McKenzie, R. L., Liley, J. B., and Björn, L. O.: UV radiation: Balancing risks and benefits, Photochem. Photobiol., 85, 88-98, doi:10.1111/j.1751-1097.2008.00400.x, 2009.
48. McKenzie, R. L., Aucamp, P. J., Bais, A. F., Björn, L. O., Ilyas, M., and Madronich, S.: Ozone depletion and climate change: impacts on UV radiation, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 10, 182-198, doi:10.1039/c0pp90034f, 2011.
49. Moore, J. C., Rinke, A., Yu, X., Ji, D., Cui, X., Li, Y., Alterskjær, K., Kristjánsson, J. E., Muri, H., Boucher, O., Huneeus, N., Kravitz, B., Robock, A., Niemeier, U., Schulz, M., Tilmes, S., Watanabe, S., and Yang, S.: Arctic sea ice and atmospheric circulation under the GeoMIP G1 scenario, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 567-583, doi:10.1002/2013JD021060, 2014.
50. Mora, J. R., Iwata, M., and von Andrian, U. H.: Vitamin effects on the immune system: vitamins A and D take centre stage, Nat. Rev. Immunol., 8, 685-698, doi:10.1038/nri2378, 2008.
51. Morgenstern, O., Braesicke, P., O'Connor, F. M., Bushell, A. C., Johnson, C. E., Osprey, S. M., and Pyle, J. A.: Evaluation of the new UKCA climate-composition model-Part 1: The stratosphere, Geosci. Model Dev., 2, 43-57, doi:10.5194/gmd-2-43-2009, 2009.
52. Morgenstern, O., Zeng, G., Abraham, N. L., Telford, P. J., Braesicke, P., Pyle, J. A., Hardiman, S. C., O'Connor, F. M., and Johnson, C. E.: Impacts of climate change, ozone recovery, and increasing methane on surface ozone and the tropospheric oxidizing capacity, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 1028-1041, doi:10.1029/2012JD018382, 2013.
53. Moss, R. H., Edmonds, J. A., Hibbard, K. A., Manning, M. R., Rose, S. K., van Vuuren, D. P., Carter, T. R., Emori, S., Kainuma, M., Kram, T., Meehl, G. A., Mitchell, J. F. B., Nakicenovic, N., Riahi, K., Smith, S. J., Stouffer, R. J., Thomson, A. M., Weyant, J. P., and Wilbanks, T. J.: The next generation of scenarios for climate change research and assessment, Nature, 463, 747-756, doi:10.1038/nature08823, 2010.
54. Neu, J. L., Prather, M. J., and Penner, J. E.: Global atmospheric chemistry: Integrating over fractional cloud cover, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 112, D11306, doi:10.1029/2006JD008007, 2007.
55. Neu, J. L., Flury, T., Manney, G. L., Santee, M. L., Livesey, N. J., and Worden, J.: Tropospheric ozone variations governed by changes in stratospheric circulation, Nat. Geosci., 7, 340-344, doi:10.1038/NGEO2138, 2014.
56. Niemeier, U., Schmidt, H., Alterskjær, K., and Kristjánsson, J. E.: Solar irradiance reduction via climate engineering: Impact of different techniques on the energy balance and the hydrological cycle, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 11905-11917, doi:10.1002/2013JD020445, 2013.
57. Norval, M., Lucas, R. M., Cullen, A. P., de Gruijl, F. R., Longstreth, J., Takizawa, Y., and van der Leun, J. C.: The human health effects of ozone depletion and interactions with climate change, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 10, 199-225, doi:10.1039/C0PP90044C, 2011.
58. Nowack, P. J., Abraham, N. L., Maycock, A. C., Braesicke, P., Gregory, J. M., Joshi, M. M., Osprey, A., and Pyle, J. A.: A large ozone-circulation feedback and its implications for global warming assessments, Nat. Clim. Change, 5, 41-45, doi:10.1038/nclimate2451, 2015.
59. O'Connor, F. M., Johnson, C. E., Morgenstern, O., Abraham, N. L., Braesicke, P., Dalvi, M., Folberth, G. A., Sanderson, M. G., Telford, P. J., Voulgarakis, A., Young, P. J., Zeng, G., Collins, W. J., and Pyle, J. A.: Evaluation of the new UKCA climatecomposition model-Part 2: The Troposphere, Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 41-91, doi:10.5194/gmd-7-41-2014, 2014.
60. Oman, L. D.,Waugh, D.W., Kawa, S. R., Stolarski, R. S., Douglass, A. R., and Newman, P. A.: Mechanisms and feedback causing changes in upper stratospheric ozone in the 21st century, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, D24306, doi:10.1029/2009JD012397, 2010.
61. Pitari, G., Aquila, V., Kravitz, B., Robock, A., Watanabe, S., Cionni, I., de Luca, N., di Genova, G., Mancini, E., and Tilmes, S.: Stratospheric ozone response to sulfate geoengineering: Results from the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 119, 2629-2653, doi:10.1002/2013JD020566, 2014.
62. Pope, F. D., Braesicke, P., Grainger, R. G., Kalberer, M., Watson, I. M., Davidson, P. J., and Cox, R. A.: Stratospheric aerosol particles and solar-radiation management, Nat. Clim. Change, 2, 713-719, doi:10.1038/nclimate1528, 2012.
63. Portmann, R. W. and Solomon, S.: Indirect radiative forcing of the ozone layer during the 21st century, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L02813, doi:10.1029/2006GL028252, 2007.
64. Price, C. and Rind, D.: A simple lightning parameterization for calculating global lightning distributions, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 97, 9919-9933, doi:10.1029/92JD00719, 1992.
65. Price, C. and Rind, D.: Modeling Global Lightning Distributions in a General Circulation Model, Mon. Weather Rev., 122, 1930-1939, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1994)122<1930:MGLDIA>2.0.CO;2, 1994.
66. Rasch, P. J., Tilmes, S., Turco, R. P., Robock, A., Oman, L., Chen, C.-C., Stenchikov, G. L., and Garcia, R. R.: An overview of geoengineering of climate using stratospheric sulphate aerosols, Philos. Trans. A, 366, 4007-4037, doi:10.1098/rsta.2008.0131, 2008.
67. Revell, L. E., Bodeker, G. E., Smale, D., Lehmann, R., Huck, P. E., Williamson, B. E., Rozanov, E., and Struthers, H.: The effectiveness of N2O in depleting stratospheric ozone, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L15806, doi:10.1029/2012GL052143, 2012.
68. Ricke, K. L., Morgan, M. G., and Allen, M. R.: Regional climate response to solar-radiation management, Nat. Geosci., 3, 537-541, doi:10.1038/ngeo915, 2010.
69. Robock, A., Oman, L., and Stenchikov, G. L.: Regional climate responses to geoengineering with tropical and Arctic SO2 injections, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 113, D16101, doi:10.1029/2008JD010050, 2008.
70. Ross, A. C., Taylor, C. L., Yaktine, A. L., and Del Valle, H. B.: Institute of Medicine (US): Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D, National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., USA, 2011.
71. 2: climate responses simulated by four earth system models, Earth Syst. Dynam., 3, 63-78, doi:10.5194/esd-3-63-2012, 2012.
72. Seifritz, W.: Mirrors to halt global warming?, Nature, 340, 603, doi:10.1038/340603a0, 1989.
73. Shepherd, J. G.: Geoengineering the climate: science, governance and uncertainty, Royal Society, London, UK, 2009.
74. Shepherd, T. G. and McLandress, C.: A Robust Mechanism for Strengthening of the Brewer-Dobson Circulation in Response to Climate Change: Critical-Layer Control of Subtropical Wave Breaking, J. Atmos. Sci., 68, 784-797, doi:10.1175/2010JAS3608.1, 2011.
75. Silva, R. A., West, J. J., Zhang, Y., Anenberg, S. C., Lamarque, J.-F., Shindell, D. T., Collins,W. J., Dalsoren, S., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G., Horowitz, L. W., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Rumbold, S., Skeie, R., Sudo, K., Takemura, T., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P., Cionni, I., Doherty, R. M., Eyring, V., Josse, B., MacKenzie, I. A., Plummer, D., Righi, M., Stevenson, D. S., Strode, S., Szopa, S., and Zeng, G.: Global premature mortality due to anthropogenic outdoor air pollution and the contribution of past climate change, Environ. Res. Lett., 8, 034005, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034005, 2013.
76. Slaper, H., Velders, G. J. M., Daniel, J. S., de Gruijl, F. R., and van der Leun, J. C.: Estimates of ozone depletion and skin cancer incidence to examine the Vienna Convention achievements, Nature, 384, 256-258, doi:10.1038/384256a0, 1996.
77. Squire, O. J., Archibald, A. T., Abraham, N. L., Beerling, D. J., Hewitt, C. N., Lathière, J., Pike, R. C., Telford, P. J., and Pyle, J. A.: Influence of future climate and cropland expansion on isoprene emissions and tropospheric ozone, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 1011-1024, doi:10.5194/acp-14-1011-2014, 2014.
78. Squire, O. J., Archibald, A. T., Griffiths, P. T., Jenkin, M. E., Smith, D., and Pyle, J. A.: Influence of isoprene chemical mechanism on modelled changes in tropospheric ozone due to climate and land use over the 21st century, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 5123-5143, doi:10.5194/acp-15-5123-2015, 2015.
79. Staiger, H., den Outer, P. N., Bais, A. F., Feister, U., Johnsen, B., and Vuilleumier, L.: Hourly resolved cloud modification factors in the ultraviolet, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 2493-2508, doi:10.5194/acp-8-2493-2008, 2008.
80. Stocker, T. F., Qin, D., Plattner, G. K., Tignor, M., Allen, S. K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, B., and Midgley, B. M.: IPCC, 2013: Climate Change 2013: the Physical Science Basis. Contribution of working group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, Switzerland, 2013.
81. Tang, X., Wilson, S. R., Solomon, K. R., Shao, M., and Madronich, S.: Changes in air quality and tropospheric composition due to depletion of stratospheric ozone and interactions with climate, Photochem. Photobiol. Sci., 10, 280-291, doi:10.1039/c0pp90039g, 2011.
82. Taylor, K. E., Stouffer, R. J., and Meehl, G. A.: An overview of CMIP5 and the experiment design, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 93, 485-498, doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00094.1, 2012.
83. Telford, P. J., Abraham, N. L., Archibald, A. T., Braesicke, P., Dalvi, M., Morgenstern, O., O'Connor, F. M., Richards, N. A. D., and Pyle, J. A.: Implementation of the Fast-JX Photolysis scheme (v6.4) into the UKCA component of the MetUM chemistry-climate model (v7.3), Geosci. Model Dev., 6, 161-177, doi:10.5194/gmd-6-161-2013, 2013.
84. Tilmes, S., Müller, R., and Salawitch, R.: The Sensitivity of Polar Ozone Depletion to Proposed Geoengineering Schemes, Science, 80, 320, 1201-1204, doi:10.1126/science.1153966, 2008.
85. Tilmes, S., Garcia, R. R., Kinnison, D. E., Gettelman, A., and Rasch, P. J.: Impact of geoengineered aerosols on the troposphere and stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 114, D12305, doi:10.1029/2008JD011420, 2009.
86. Tilmes, S., Kinnison, D. E., Garcia, R. R., Salawitch, R., Canty, T., Lee-Taylor, J., Madronich, S., and Chance, K.: Impact of very short-lived halogens on stratospheric ozone abundance and UV radiation in a geo-engineered atmosphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 10945-10955, doi:10.5194/acp-12-10945-2012, 2012.
87. Tilmes, S., Fasullo, J., Lamarque, J. F., Marsh, D. R., Mills, M., Alterskjær, K., Muri, H., Kristjánsson, J. E., Boucher, O., Schulz, M., Cole, J. N. S., Curry, C. L., Jones, A., Haywood, J., Irvine, P. J., Ji, D., Moore, J. C., Karam, D. B., Kravitz, B., Rasch, P. J., Singh, B., Yoon, J. H., Niemeier, U., Schmidt, H., Robock, A., Yang, S., and Watanabe, S.: The hydrological impact of geoengineering in the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP), J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 11036-11058, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50868, 2013.
88. Weisenstein, D. K., Keith, D.W., and Dykema, J. A.: Solar geoengineering using solid aerosol in the stratosphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 15, 11835-11859, doi:10.5194/acp-15-11835-2015, 2015.
89. WHO-World Health Organization: Global Solar UV Index, Publication WHO/SDE/OEH/02.2, Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
90. Wild, O., Zhu, X., and Prather, M. J.: Fast-J: Accurate simulation of in-and below-cloud photolysis in tropospheric chemical models, J. Atmos. Chem., 37, 245-282, doi:10.1023/A:1006415919030, 2000.
91. Williamson, C. E., Zepp, R. G., Lucas, R. M., Madronich, S., Austin, A. T., Ballare, C. L., Norval, M., Sulzberger, B., Bais, A. F. McKenzie, R. L., Robinson, S. A., Hader, D.-P., Paul, N. D., and Bornman, J. F.: Solar ultraviolet radiation in a changing climate, Nat. Clim. Change, 4, 434-441, doi:10.1038/NCLIMATE2225, 2014.
92. Young, P. J., Archibald, A. T., Bowman, K. W., Lamarque, J.-F., Naik, V., Stevenson, D. S., Tilmes, S., Voulgarakis, A., Wild, O., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P., Cionni, I., Collins,W. J., Dalsøren, S. B., Doherty, R. M., Eyring, V., Faluvegi, G., Horowitz, L. W., Josse, B., Lee, Y. H., MacKenzie, I. A., Nagashima, T., Plummer, D. A., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R. B., Shindell, D. T., Strode, S. A., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., and Zeng, G.: Preindustrial to end 21st century projections of tropospheric ozone from the Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2063-2090, doi:10.5194/acp-13-2063-2013, 2013.
93. Zeng, G., Morgenstern, O., Braesicke, P., and Pyle, J. A.: Impact of stratospheric ozone recovery on tropospheric ozone and its budget, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L09805, doi:10.1029/2010GL042812, 2010.