Hyperthyroidism

The Lancet

Volumn 388, Issue 10047, 2016, Pages 906-918

  De Leo, Simone ^a,b,c   Lee, Sun Y ^c   Braverman, Lewis E ^c  

^a FONDAZIONE IRCCS CA GRANDA OSPEDALE MAGGIORE POLICLINICO   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

^c BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; ANTITHYROID AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BILE ACID SEQUESTRANT; GLUCOCORTICOID; IODINE; PARACETAMOL; RADIOACTIVE IODINE; THYROID HORMONE;

AGRANULOCYTOSIS; ARTHRALGIA; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL PROTOCOL; EYE DISEASE; FOLLOW UP; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HUMAN; HYPERTHYROIDISM; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PRURITUS; PUERPERIUM; REVIEW; SKIN MANIFESTATION; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; THYROID CRISIS; THYROIDECTOMY; THYROIDITIS; THYROTOXICOSIS; ADVERSE EFFECTS; BIOSYNTHESIS; BLOOD; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DRUG ADMINISTRATION; FEMALE; GRAVES DISEASE; METABOLISM; PATIENT CARE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS; RISK FACTOR; THYROID GLAND;

ADRENERGIC BETA-ANTAGONISTS; AMIODARONE; ANTITHYROID AGENTS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DRUG ADMINISTRATION SCHEDULE; FEMALE; GRAVES DISEASE; HUMANS; HYPERTHYROIDISM; IODINE RADIOISOTOPES; PATIENT CARE TEAM; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS; RISK FACTORS; THYROID CRISIS; THYROID GLAND; THYROID HORMONES; THYROIDECTOMY; THYROTOXICOSIS;

EID: 84962050589     PISSN: 01406736     EISSN: 1474547X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00278-6     Document Type: Review

References (141)

1. 1 Hedberg, CW, Fishbein, DB, Janssen, RS, et al. An outbreak of thyrotoxicosis caused by the consumption of bovine thyroid gland in ground beef. N Engl J Med 316 (1987), 993–998.
2. 2 Cooper, DS, Biondi, B, Subclinical thyroid disease. Lancet 379 (2012), 1142–1154.
3. 3 Garmendia Madariaga, A, Santos Palacios, S, Guillén-Grima, F, Galofré, JC, The incidence and prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in Europe: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99 (2014), 923–931.
4. 4 Hollowell, JG, Staehling, NW, Flanders, WD, et al. Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 (2002), 489–499.
5. 5 Vejbjerg, P, Knudsen, N, Perrild, H, et al. Lower prevalence of mild hyperthyroidism related to a higher iodine intake in the population: prospective study of a mandatory iodization programme. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 71 (2009), 440–445.
6. 6 Nyström, HF, Jansson, S, Berg, G, Incidence rate and clinical features of hyperthyroidism in a long-term iodine sufficient area of Sweden (Gothenburg) 2003-2005. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 78 (2013), 768–776.
7. 7 Abraham-Nordling, M, Byström, K, Törring, O, et al. Incidence of hyperthyroidism in Sweden. Eur J Endocrinol 165 (2011), 899–905.
8. 8 Marinò, M, Latrofa, F, Menconi, F, Chiovato, L, Vitti, P, Role of genetic and non-genetic factors in the etiology of Graves' disease. J Endocrinol Invest 38 (2015), 283–294.
9. 9 Winsa, B, Adami, HO, Bergström, R, et al. Stressful life events and Graves' disease. Lancet 338 (1991), 1475–1479.
10. 10 Wiersinga, WM, Smoking and thyroid. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 79 (2013), 145–151.
11. 11 Menconi, F, Marcocci, C, Marinò, M, Diagnosis and classification of Graves' disease. Autoimmun Rev 13 (2014), 398–402.
12. 12 McLeod, DS, Cooper, DS, The incidence and prevalence of thyroid autoimmunity. Endocrine 42 (2012), 252–265.
13. 13 Brix, TH, Hegedüs, L, Twin studies as a model for exploring the aetiology of autoimmune thyroid disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 76 (2012), 457–464.
14. 14 Laurberg, P, Cerqueira, C, Ovesen, L, et al. Iodine intake as a determinant of thyroid disorders in populations. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 24 (2010), 13–27.
15. 15 Krohn, K, Paschke, R, Clinical review 133: progress in understanding the etiology of thyroid autonomy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 (2001), 3336–3345.
16. 16 Paschke, R, Ludgate, M, The thyrotropin receptor in thyroid diseases. N Engl J Med 337 (1997), 1675–1681.
17. 17 Beck-Peccoz, P, Persani, L, Thyrotropin-induced thyrotoxicosis. Braverman, LE, Cooper, DS, (eds.) Werner & Ingbar's the thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text, 10th edn., 2013, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 393–399.
18. 18 Hershman, JM, Trophoblastic tumors. Braverman, LE, Cooper, DS, (eds.) Werner & Ingbar's the thyroid: a fundamental and clinical text, 10th edn., 2013, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, 409–414.
19. 19 Fatourechi, V, Aniszewski, JP, Fatourechi, GZ, Atkinson, EJ, Jacobsen, SJ, Clinical features and outcome of subacute thyroiditis in an incidence cohort: Olmsted County, Minnesota, study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 (2003), 2100–2105.
20. 20 Schwartz, F, Bergmann, N, Zerahn, B, Faber, J, Incidence rate of symptomatic painless thyroiditis presenting with thyrotoxicosis in Denmark as evaluated by consecutive thyroid scintigraphies. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 73 (2013), 240–244.
21. 21 Goichot, B, Caron, P, Landron, F, Bouée, S, Clinical presentation of hyperthyroidism in a large representative sample of outpatients in France: relationships with age, aetiology and hormonal parameters. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 2015, 10.1111/cen.12816 published online May 9.
22. 22 Devereaux, D, Tewelde, SZ, Hyperthyroidism and thyrotoxicosis. Emerg Med Clin North Am 32 (2014), 277–292.
23. 23 Boelaert, K, Torlinska, B, Holder, RL, Franklyn, JA, Older subjects with hyperthyroidism present with a paucity of symptoms and signs: a large cross-sectional study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95 (2010), 2715–2726.
24. 24 Bartalena, L, Fatourechi, V, Extrathyroidal manifestations of Graves' disease: a 2014 update. J Endocrinol Invest 37 (2014), 691–700.
25. 25 Bartalena, L, Baldeschi, L, Dickinson, AJ, et al. Consensus statement of the European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy (EUGOGO) on management of Graves' orbitopathy. Thyroid 18 (2008), 333–346.
26. 26 Bahn, R, The EUGOGO consensus statement on the management of Graves' orbitopathy: equally applicable to North American clinicians and patients. Thyroid 18 (2008), 281–282.
27. 27 Wiersinga, WM, Perros, P, Kahaly, GJ, et al., the European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy (EUGOGO). Clinical assessment of patients with Graves' orbitopathy: the European Group on Graves' Orbitopathy recommendations to generalists, specialists and clinical researchers. Eur J Endocrinol 155 (2006), 387–389.
28. 28 Fatourechi, V, Thyroid dermopathy and acropachy. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 26 (2012), 553–565.
29. 29 Schwartz, KM, Fatourechi, V, Ahmed, DD, Pond, GR, Dermopathy of Graves' disease (pretibial myxedema): long-term outcome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 (2002), 438–446.
30. 30 Fatourechi, V, Ahmed, DD, Schwartz, KM, Thyroid acropachy: report of 40 patients treated at a single institution in a 26-year period. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 (2002), 5435–5441.
31. 31 Sawin, CT, Geller, A, Wolf, PA, et al. Low serum thyrotropin concentrations as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation in older persons. N Engl J Med 331 (1994), 1249–1252.
32. 32 Chen, Q, Yan, Y, Zhang, L, Cheng, K, Liu, Y, Zhu, W, Effect of hyperthyroidism on the hypercoagulable state and thromboembolic events in patients with atrial fibrillation. Cardiology 127 (2014), 176–182.
33. 33 Biondi, B, Kahaly, GJ, Cardiovascular involvement in patients with different causes of hyperthyroidism. Nat Rev Endocrinol 6 (2010), 431–443.
34. 34 Traube, E, Coplan, NL, Embolic risk in atrial fibrillation that arises from hyperthyroidism: review of the medical literature. Tex Heart Inst J 38 (2011), 225–228.
35. 35 Siu, CW, Yeung, CY, Lau, CP, Kung, AW, Tse, HF, Incidence, clinical characteristics and outcome of congestive heart failure as the initial presentation in patients with primary hyperthyroidism. Heart 93 (2007), 483–487.
36. 36 Selmer, C, Olesen, JB, Hansen, ML, et al. Subclinical and overt thyroid dysfunction and risk of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events: a large population study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99 (2014), 2372–2382.
37. 37 Vijayakumar, A, Ashwath, G, Thimmappa, D, Thyrotoxic periodic paralysis: clinical challenges. J Thyroid Res, 2014, 2014, 649502.
38. 38 Ryan, DP, da Silva, MR, Soong, TW, et al. Mutations in potassium channel Kir2.6 cause susceptibility to thyrotoxic hypokalemic periodic paralysis. Cell 140 (2010), 88–98.
39. 39 Abe, E, Marians, RC, Yu, W, et al. TSH is a negative regulator of skeletal remodeling. Cell 115 (2003), 151–162.
40. 40 Meikle, AW, The interrelationships between thyroid dysfunction and hypogonadism in men and boys. Thyroid 14:suppl 1 (2004), S17–S25.
41. 41 Krassas, GE, Poppe, K, Glinoer, D, Thyroid function and human reproductive health. Endocr Rev 31 (2010), 702–755.
42. 42 de los Santos, ET, Starich, GH, Mazzaferri, EL, Sensitivity, specificity, and cost-effectiveness of the sensitive thyrotropin assay in the diagnosis of thyroid disease in ambulatory patients. Arch Intern Med 149 (1989), 526–532.
43. 43 Vaidya, B, Pearce, SH, Diagnosis and management of thyrotoxicosis. BMJ, 349, 2014, g5128.
44. 44 Bahn Chair, RS, Burch, HB, Cooper, DS, et al., the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Thyroid 21 (2011), 593–646.
45. 45 Kahaly, GJ, Bartalena, L, Hegedüs, L, The American Thyroid Association/American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists guidelines for hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: a European perspective. Thyroid 21 (2011), 585–591.
46. 46 Burch, HB, Burman, KD, Cooper, DSA, A 2011 survey of clinical practice patterns in the management of Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97 (2012), 4549–4558.
47. 47 Yamashita, S, Amino, N, Shong, YK, The American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis guidelines: viewpoints from Japan and Korea. Thyroid 21 (2011), 577–580.
48. 48 Moon, JH, Yi, KH, The diagnosis and management of hyperthyroidism in Korea: consensus report of the Korean Thyroid Association. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul) 28 (2013), 275–279.
49. 49 Maia, AL, Scheffel, RS, Meyer, EL, et al., the Brazilian Society of Endocrinology and Metabolism. The Brazilian consensus for the diagnosis and treatment of hyperthyroidism: recommendations by the Thyroid Department of the Brazilian Society of Endocrinology and Metabolism. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol 57 (2013), 205–232.
50. 50 Cappelli, C, Pirola, I, De Martino, E, et al. The role of imaging in Graves' disease: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Eur J Radiol 65 (2008), 99–103.
51. 51 Ota, H, Amino, N, Morita, S, et al. Quantitative measurement of thyroid blood flow for differentiation of painless thyroiditis from Graves' disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 67 (2007), 41–45.
52. 52 Tozzoli, R, Bagnasco, M, Giavarina, D, Bizzaro, N, TSH receptor autoantibody immunoassay in patients with Graves' disease: improvement of diagnostic accuracy over different generations of methods. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Autoimmun Rev 12 (2012), 107–113.
53. 53 Barbesino, G, Tomer, Y, Clinical review: Clinical utility of TSH receptor antibodies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98 (2013), 2247–2255.
54. 54 van Soestbergen, MJ, van der Vijver, JC, Graafland, AD, Recurrence of hyperthyroidism in multinodular goiter after long-term drug therapy: a comparison with Graves' disease. J Endocrinol Invest 15 (1992), 797–800.
55. 55 Bartalena, L, Diagnosis and management of Graves disease: a global overview. Nat Rev Endocrinol 9 (2013), 724–734.
56. 56 Cooper, DS, Antithyroid drugs. N Engl J Med 352 (2005), 905–917.
57. 57 Koenig, RJ, Regulation of type 1 iodothyronine deiodinase in health and disease. Thyroid 15 (2005), 835–840.
58. 58 Antonelli, A, Ferrari, SM, Corrado, A, Ferrannini, E, Fallahi, P, Increase of interferon-γ inducible CXCL9 and CXCL11 serum levels in patients with active Graves' disease and modulation by methimazole therapy. Thyroid 23 (2013), 1461–1469.
59. 59 Nakamura, H, Noh, JY, Itoh, K, Fukata, S, Miyauchi, A, Hamada, N, Comparison of methimazole and propylthiouracil in patients with hyperthyroidism caused by Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92 (2007), 2157–2162.
60. 60 Okamura, K, Ikenoue, H, Shiroozu, A, Sato, K, Yoshinari, M, Fujishima, M, Reevaluation of the effects of methylmercaptoimidazole and propylthiouracil in patients with Graves' hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 65 (1987), 719–723.
61. 61 Kim, HJ, Kim, BH, Han, YS, et al. The incidence and clinical characteristics of symptomatic propylthiouracil-induced hepatic injury in patients with hyperthyroidism: a single-center retrospective study. Am J Gastroenterol 96 (2001), 165–169.
62. 62 Rivkees, SA, Mattison, DR, Propylthiouracil (PTU) hepatoxicity in children and recommendations for discontinuation of use. Int J Pediatr Endocrinol, 2009, 2009, 132041.
63. 63 Bahn, RS, Burch, HS, Cooper, DS, et al. The role of propylthiouracil in the management of Graves' disease in adults: report of a meeting jointly sponsored by the American Thyroid Association and the Food and Drug Administration. Thyroid 19 (2009), 673–674.
64. 64 Takata, K, Amino, N, Kubota, S, et al. Benefit of short-term iodide supplementation to antithyroid drug treatment of thyrotoxicosis due to Graves' disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 72 (2010), 845–850.
65. 65 Sato, S, Noh, JY, Sato, S, et al. Comparison of efficacy and adverse effects between methimazole 15 mg+inorganic iodine 38 mg/day and methimazole 30 mg/day as initial therapy for Graves' disease patients with moderate to severe hyperthyroidism. Thyroid 25 (2015), 43–50.
66. 66 Benker, G, Reinwein, D, Kahaly, G, et al., the European Multicentre Trial Group of the Treatment of Hyperthyroidism with Antithyroid Drugs. Is there a methimazole dose effect on remission rate in Graves' disease? Results from a long-term prospective study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 49 (1998), 451–457.
67. 67 Abraham, P, Avenell, A, McGeoch, SC, Clark, LF, Bevan, JS, Antithyroid drug regimen for treating Graves' hyperthyroidism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 1, 2010, CD003420.
68. 68 Razvi, S, Vaidya, B, Perros, P, Pearce, SH, What is the evidence behind the evidence-base? The premature death of block-replace antithyroid drug regimens for Graves' disease. Eur J Endocrinol 154 (2006), 783–786.
69. 69 Allannic, H, Fauchet, R, Orgiazzi, J, et al. Antithyroid drugs and Graves' disease: a prospective randomized evaluation of the efficacy of treatment duration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 70 (1990), 675–679.
70. 70 Anagnostis, P, Adamidou, F, Polyzos, SA, et al. Predictors of long-term remission in patients with Graves' disease: a single center experience. Endocrine 44 (2013), 448–453.
71. 71 Mohlin, E, Filipsson Nyström, H, Eliasson, M, Long-term prognosis after medical treatment of Graves' disease in a northern Swedish population 2000–2010. Eur J Endocrinol 170 (2014), 419–427.
72. 72 Laurberg, P, Krejbjerg, A, Andersen, SL, Relapse following antithyroid drug therapy for Graves' hyperthyroidism. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 21 (2014), 415–421.
73. 73 Azizi, F, The safety and efficacy of antithyroid drugs. Expert Opin Drug Saf 5 (2006), 107–116.
74. 74 Quadbeck, B, Hoermann, R, Roggenbuck, U, Hahn, S, Mann, K, Janssen, OE, the Basedow Study Group. Sensitive thyrotropin and thyrotropin-receptor antibody determinations one month after discontinuation of antithyroid drug treatment as predictors of relapse in Graves' disease. Thyroid 15 (2005), 1047–1054.
75. 75 Schott, M, Morgenthaler, NG, Fritzen, R, et al. Levels of autoantibodies against human TSH receptor predict relapse of hyperthyroidism in Graves' disease. Horm Metab Res 36 (2004), 92–96.
76. 76 Carella, C, Mazziotti, G, Sorvillo, F, et al. Serum thyrotropin receptor antibodies concentrations in patients with Graves' disease before, at the end of methimazole treatment, and after drug withdrawal: evidence that the activity of thyrotropin receptor antibody and/or thyroid response modify during the observation period. Thyroid 16 (2006), 295–302.
77. 77 Liu, X, Qiang, W, Liu, X, et al. A second course of antithyroid drug therapy for recurrent Graves' disease: an experience in endocrine practice. Eur J Endocrinol 172 (2015), 321–326.
78. 78 Otsuka, F, Noh, JY, Chino, T, et al. Hepatotoxicity and cutaneous reactions after antithyroid drug administration. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 77 (2012), 310–315.
79. 79 Robinson, J, Richardson, M, Hickey, J, et al. Patient knowledge of antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis. Eur Thyroid J 3 (2014), 245–251.
80. 80 Nakamura, H, Miyauchi, A, Miyawaki, N, Imagawa, J, Analysis of 754 cases of antithyroid drug-induced agranulocytosis over 30 years in Japan. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98 (2013), 4776–4783.
81. 81 Watanabe, N, Narimatsu, H, Noh, JY, et al. Antithyroid drug-induced hematopoietic damage: a retrospective cohort study of agranulocytosis and pancytopenia involving 50,385 patients with Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97 (2012), E49–E53.
82. 82 Wang, MT, Lee, WJ, Huang, TY, Chu, CL, Hsieh, CH, Antithyroid drug-related hepatotoxicity in hyperthyroidism patients: a population-based cohort study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 78 (2014), 619–629.
83. 83 Rivkees, SA, Szarfman, A, Dissimilar hepatotoxicity profiles of propylthiouracil and methimazole in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95 (2010), 3260–3267.
84. 84 Noh, JY, Yasuda, S, Sato, S, et al. Clinical characteristics of myeloperoxidase antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis caused by antithyroid drugs. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94 (2009), 2806–2811.
85. 85 Bartalena, L, Marcocci, C, Bogazzi, F, et al. Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves' ophthalmopathy. N Engl J Med 338 (1998), 73–78.
86. 86 Chen, DY, Schneider, PF, Zhang, XS, Luo, XY, He, ZM, Chen, TH, Changes in Graves' ophthalmopathy after radioiodine and anti-thyroid drug treatment of Graves' disease from 2 prospective, randomized, open-label, blinded end point studies. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 122 (2014), 1–6.
87. 87 Watanabe, N, Noh, JY, Kozaki, A, et al. Radioiodine-associated exacerbation of Graves' orbitopathy in the Japanese population: randomized prospective study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 100 (2015), 2700–2708.
88. 88 Acharya, SH, Avenell, A, Philip, S, Burr, J, Bevan, JS, Abraham, P, Radioiodine therapy (RAI) for Graves' disease (GD) and the effect on ophthalmopathy: a systematic review. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 69 (2008), 943–950.
89. 89 Träisk, F, Tallstedt, L, Abraham-Nordling, M, et al., the Thyroid Study Group of TT 96. Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism with antithyroid drugs or iodine-131. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94 (2009), 3700–3707.
90. 90 Tallstedt, L, Lundell, G, Tørring, O, et al., the The Thyroid Study Group. Occurrence of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med 326 (1992), 1733–1738.
91. 91 Eckstein, AK, Plicht, M, Lax, H, et al. Thyrotropin receptor autoantibodies are independent risk factors for Graves' ophthalmopathy and help to predict severity and outcome of the disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91 (2006), 3464–3470.
92. 92 Stan, MN, Durski, JM, Brito, JP, Bhagra, S, Thapa, P, Bahn, RS, Cohort study on radioactive iodine-induced hypothyroidism: implications for Graves' ophthalmopathy and optimal timing for thyroid hormone assessment. Thyroid 23 (2013), 620–625.
93. 93 Shiber, S, Stiebel-Kalish, H, Shimon, I, Grossman, A, Robenshtok, E, Glucocorticoid regimens for prevention of Graves' ophthalmopathy progression following radioiodine treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis. Thyroid 24 (2014), 1515–1523.
94. 94 Andrade, VA, Gross, JL, Maia, AL, The effect of methimazole pretreatment on the efficacy of radioactive iodine therapy in Graves' hyperthyroidism: one-year follow-up of a prospective, randomized study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 (2001), 3488–3493.
95. 95 Burch, HB, Solomon, BL, Cooper, DS, Ferguson, P, Walpert, N, Howard, R, The effect of antithyroid drug pretreatment on acute changes in thyroid hormone levels after (131)I ablation for Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 (2001), 3016–3021.
96. 96 Walter, MA, Briel, M, Christ-Crain, M, et al. Effects of antithyroid drugs on radioiodine treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ, 334, 2007, 514.
97. 97 Santos, RB, Romaldini, JH, Ward, LS, Propylthiouracil reduces the effectiveness of radioiodine treatment in hyperthyroid patients with Graves' disease. Thyroid 14 (2004), 525–530.
98. 98 Walter, MA, Christ-Crain, M, Schindler, C, Müller-Brand, J, Müller, B, Outcome of radioiodine therapy without, on or 3 days off carbimazole: a prospective interventional three-group comparison. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 33 (2006), 730–737.
99. 99 de Rooij, A, Vandenbroucke, JP, Smit, JW, Stokkel, MP, Dekkers, OM, Clinical outcomes after estimated versus calculated activity of radioiodine for the treatment of hyperthyroidism: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Endocrinol 161 (2009), 771–777.
100. 100 Rokni, H, Sadeghi, R, Moossavi, Z, Treglia, G, Zakavi, SR, Efficacy of different protocols of radioiodine therapy for treatment of toxic nodular goiter: systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. Int J Endocrinol Metab, 12, 2014, e14424.
101. 101 Boelaert, K, Syed, AA, Manji, N, et al. Prediction of cure and risk of hypothyroidism in patients receiving 131I for hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 70 (2009), 129–138.
102. 102 Alexander, EK, Larsen, PR, High dose of (131)I therapy for the treatment of hyperthyroidism caused by Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 (2002), 1073–1077.
103. 103 Ross, DS, Radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism. N Engl J Med 364 (2011), 542–550.
104. 104 Bonnema, SJ, Hegedüs, L, Radioiodine therapy in benign thyroid diseases: effects, side effects, and factors affecting therapeutic outcome. Endocr Rev 33 (2012), 920–980.
105. 105 la Cour, JL, Jensen, LT, Vej-Hansen, A, Nygaard, B, Radioiodine therapy increases the risk of cerebrovascular events in hyperthyroid and euthyroid patients. Eur J Endocrinol 172 (2015), 771–778.
106. 106 Ryödi, E, Metso, S, Jaatinen, P, et al. Cancer incidence and mortality in patients treated either with RAI or thyroidectomy for hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 100 (2015), 3710–3717.
107. 107 Ceccarelli, C, Canale, D, Battisti, P, et al. Testicular function after 131I therapy for hyperthyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 65 (2006), 446–452.
108. 108 Genovese, BM, Noureldine, SI, Gleeson, EM, Tufano, RP, Kandil, E, What is the best definitive treatment for Graves' disease? A systematic review of the existing literature. Ann Surg Oncol 20 (2013), 660–667.
109. 109 Bojic, T, Paunovic, I, Diklic, A, et al. Total thyroidectomy as a method of choice in the treatment of Graves' disease—analysis of 1432 patients. BMC Surg, 15, 2015, 39.
110. 110 Palit, TK, Miller, CC 3rd, Miltenburg, DM, The efficacy of thyroidectomy for Graves' disease: a meta-analysis. J Surg Res 90 (2000), 161–165.
111. 111 Shinall, MC Jr, Broome, JT, Baker, A, Solorzano, CC, Is potassium iodide solution necessary before total thyroidectomy for Graves disease?. Ann Surg Oncol 20 (2013), 2964–2967.
112. 112 Erbil, Y, Ozluk, Y, Giriş, M, et al. Effect of lugol solution on thyroid gland blood flow and microvessel density in the patients with Graves' disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92 (2007), 2182–2189.
113. 113 Werga-Kjellman, P, Zedenius, J, Tallstedt, L, Träisk, F, Lundell, G, Wallin, G, Surgical treatment of hyperthyroidism: a ten-year experience. Thyroid 11 (2001), 187–192.
114. 114 Pradeep, PV, Agarwal, A, Baxi, M, Agarwal, G, Gupta, SK, Mishra, SK, Safety and efficacy of surgical management of hyperthyroidism: 15-year experience from a tertiary care center in a developing country. World J Surg 31 (2007), 306–312 discussion 313.
115. 115 Kandil, E, Noureldine, SI, Abbas, A, Tufano, RP, The impact of surgical volume on patient outcomes following thyroid surgery. Surgery 154 (2013), 1346–1352 discussion 1352–53.
116. 116 Hauch, A, Al-Qurayshi, Z, Randolph, G, Kandil, E, Total thyroidectomy is associated with increased risk of complications for low- and high-volume surgeons. Ann Surg Oncol 21 (2014), 3844–3852.
117. 117 Akamizu, T, Satoh, T, Isozaki, O, et al., the Japan Thyroid Association. Diagnostic criteria, clinical features, and incidence of thyroid storm based on nationwide surveys. Thyroid 22 (2012), 661–679.
118. 118 Klubo-Gwiezdzinska, J, Wartofsky, L, Thyroid emergencies. Med Clin North Am 96 (2012), 385–403.
119. 119 Swee, DS, Chng, CL, Lim, A, Clinical characteristics and outcome of thyroid storm: a case series and review of neuropsychiatric derangements in thyrotoxicosis. Endocr Pract 21 (2015), 182–189.
120. 120 Angell, TE, Lechner, MG, Nguyen, CT, Salvato, VL, Nicoloff, JT, LoPresti, JS, Clinical features and hospital outcomes in thyroid storm: a retrospective cohort study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 100 (2015), 451–459.
121. 121 Burch, HB, Wartofsky, L, Life-threatening thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 22 (1993), 263–277.
122. 122 Pearce, EN, Hennessey, JV, McDermott, MT, New American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists guidelines for thyrotoxicosis and other forms of hyperthyroidism: significant progress for the clinician and a guide to future research. Thyroid 21 (2011), 573–576.
123. 123 Kaykhaei, MA, Shams, M, Sadegholvad, A, Dabbaghmanesh, MH, Omrani, GR, Low doses of cholestyramine in the treatment of hyperthyroidism. Endocrine 34 (2008), 52–55.
124. 124 Tsatsoulis, A, Johnson, EO, Kalogera, CH, Seferiadis, K, Tsolas, O, The effect of thyrotoxicosis on adrenocortical reserve. Eur J Endocrinol 142 (2000), 231–235.
125. 125 Milner, MR, Gelman, KM, Phillips, RA, Fuster, V, Davies, TF, Goldman, ME, Double-blind crossover trial of diltiazem versus propranolol in the management of thyrotoxic symptoms. Pharmacotherapy 10 (1990), 100–106.
126. 126 Isozaki, O, Satoh, T, Wakino, S, et al. Treatment and management of thyroid storm: analysis of the nationwide surveys: The taskforce committee of the Japan Thyroid Association and Japan Endocrine Society for the establishment of diagnostic criteria and nationwide surveys for thyroid storm. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 2015, 10.1111/cen.12949 published online Sep 21.
127. 127 Korelitz, JJ, McNally, DL, Masters, MN, Li, SX, Xu, Y, Rivkees, SA, Prevalence of thyrotoxicosis, antithyroid medication use, and complications among pregnant women in the United States. Thyroid 23 (2013), 758–765.
128. 128 Andersen, SL, Olsen, J, Carlé, A, Laurberg, P, Hyperthyroidism incidence fluctuates widely in and around pregnancy and is at variance with some other autoimmune diseases: a Danish population-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 100 (2015), 1164–1171.
129. 129 Stagnaro-Green, A, Abalovich, M, Alexander, E, et al., the American Thyroid Association Taskforce on Thyroid Disease During Pregnancy and Postpartum. Guidelines of the American Thyroid Association for the diagnosis and management of thyroid disease during pregnancy and postpartum. Thyroid 21 (2011), 1081–1125.
130. 130 De Groot, L, Abalovich, M, Alexander, EK, et al. Management of thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy and postpartum: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97 (2012), 2543–2565.
131. 131 Gianetti, E, Russo, L, Orlandi, F, et al. Pregnancy outcome in women treated with methimazole or propylthiouracil during pregnancy. J Endocrinol Invest 38 (2015), 977–985.
132. 132 Andersen, SL, Olsen, J, Wu, CS, Laurberg, P, Birth defects after early pregnancy use of antithyroid drugs: a Danish nationwide study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98 (2013), 4373–4381.
133. 133 Yoshihara, A, Noh, J, Yamaguchi, T, et al. Treatment of Graves' disease with antithyroid drugs in the first trimester of pregnancy and the prevalence of congenital malformation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97 (2012), 2396–2403.
134. 134 Bowman, P, Vaidya, B, Suspected spontaneous reports of birth defects in the UK associated with the use of carbimazole and propylthiouracil in pregnancy. J Thyroid Res, 2011, 2011, 235130.
135. 135 Pearce, EN, Thyroid disorders during pregnancy and postpartum. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 29 (2015), 700–706.
136. 136 Lee, RH, Spencer, CA, Mestman, JH, et al. Free T4 immunoassays are flawed during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 200 (2009), e1–e6.
137. 137 Ide, A, Amino, N, Kang, S, et al. Differentiation of postpartum Graves' thyrotoxicosis from postpartum destructive thyrotoxicosis using antithyrotropin receptor antibodies and thyroid blood flow. Thyroid 24 (2014), 1027–1031.
138. 138 Pearce, EN, Farwell, AP, Braverman, LE, Thyroiditis. N Engl J Med 348 (2003), 2646–2655.
139. 139 Kubota, S, Nishihara, E, Kudo, T, Ito, M, Amino, N, Miyauchi, A, Initial treatment with 15 mg of prednisolone daily is sufficient for most patients with subacute thyroiditis in Japan. Thyroid 23 (2013), 269–272.
140. 140 Stagnaro-Green, A, Approach to the patient with postpartum thyroiditis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97 (2012), 334–342.
141. 141 Eskes, SA, Endert, E, Fliers, E, et al. Treatment of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis type 2: a randomized clinical trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97 (2012), 499–506.