Advances in understanding gender difference in cardiometabolic disease risk

Expert Review of Cardiovascular Therapy

Volumn 14, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 513-523

  Onat, Altan ^a   Karadeniz, Yusuf ^b   Tusun, Eyyup ^a   Yüksel, Hüsniye ^a   Kaya, Ayşem ^c  

^a ISTANBUL UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^b ATATURK UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

^c ISTANBUL UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular diseases; Gender difference; Highdensity lipoprotein dysfunction; Obesity; Proinflammatory state

Indexed keywords

ESTROGEN; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; LONG CHAIN FATTY ACID; PHOSPHOLIPID; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN;

ABDOMINAL OBESITY; ATRIAL FIBRILLATION; CARDIOMETABOLIC RISK; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE; FEMALE; FOLLOW UP; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HEART FAILURE; HEART MUSCLE ISCHEMIA; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; MALE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; OBESITY; PHOSPHOLIPID BLOOD LEVEL; POSTMENOPAUSE; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; SEX DIFFERENCE; SMOKING; AUTOIMMUNITY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; IMMUNOLOGY; INFLAMMATION; METABOLISM; RISK FACTOR;

AUTOIMMUNITY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; ESTROGENS; FEMALE; GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; INSULIN RESISTANCE; LIPOPROTEINS, HDL; MALE; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; OBESITY; RISK FACTORS; SEX FACTORS;

EID: 84961212349     PISSN: 14779072     EISSN: 17448344     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14779072.2016.1150782     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. Wilkins JT, Ning H, Berry JD, et al. Lifetime risk and years lived free of total cardiovascular disease. JAMA. 2012; 308: 1795-1801. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.14312.
2. Miller VM, Duckles SP. Vascular actions of estrogens: functional implications. Pharmacol Rev. 2008; 60: 210-241. doi: 10.1124/pr.107.08002.
3. Grady D, Herrington D, Bittner V, et al. Cardiovascular disease outcomes during 6.8 years of hormone therapy: heart and estrogen/progestin replacement study follow-up (HERS II). JAMA. 2002; 288: 4957. doi: 10.1001/jama.288.1.49.
4. Onat A, Avci GŞ, Şenocak M, et al. Plasma lipids and their interrelation in Turkish adults. J Epidem Commun Health. 1992; 46: 470-476. doi: 10.1136/jech.46.5.470.
5. Onat A, Can G, Hergenç G. Serum C-reactive protein is an independent risk factor predicting cardiometabolic risk. Metabolism. 2008; 57: 207-214. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2007.09.002.
6. Rifai N, Warnick GR. Lipids, lipoproteins, apolipoproteins, and other cardiovascular risk factors. In: Burtis CA, editor. Tietz textbook of clinical chemistry and molecular diagnostics. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Saunders; 2006. p. 903-981.
7. Emerging Risk Factors Collaboration, Kaptoge S, Di Angelantonio E., Lowe G, et al. The emerging risk factors collaboration: C-reactive protein concentration and the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke and mortality: an individual participant meta-analysis. Lancet. 2010; 375: 132-140.
8. Erqou S, Kaptoge S, Perry PL, et al. Lipoprotein(a) concentration and the risk of coronary heart disease, stroke, and nonvascular mortality. JAMA. 2009; 302: 412-423.
9. Onat A, Çoban N, Can G, et al. Low "quotient" Lp(a) concentration mediates autoimmune activation and independently predicts cardiometabolic risk. Exp Clin Endocr Diabetes. 2015; 123: 11-18. doi: 10.1055/s-0034-1385922
10. Haffner SM, Miettinen H, Stern MP. Relatively more atherogenic coronary heart disease risk factors in prediabetic women than in prediabetic men. Diabetologia. 1997; 40: 711-717. doi: 10.1007/s001250050738.
11. Couillard C, Bergeron N, Prudhomme D, et al. Gender difference in postprandial lipemia: importance of visceral adipose tissue accumulation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999; 19: 2448-2455.
12. Onat A, Hergenç G, Keleş I, et al. Sex difference in development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease on the way from obesity and metabolic syndrome: prospective study of a cohort with normal glucose metabolism. Metabolism. 2005; 54: 800-808. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2005.01.025.
13. De Rekeneire N, Peila R, Ding J, et al. Diabetes, hyperglycemia, and inflammation in older individuals: the health, aging, and body composition study. Diabetes Care. 2006; 29: 1902-1908. doi: 10.2337/dc05-2327.
14. Go A, Mozaffarian D, Roger V, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2013 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2013; 127: e77-86. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0b013e318282ab8f.
15. Robitaille C, Dai S, Waters C, et al. Diagnosed hypertension in Canada: incidence, prevalence and associated mortality. Can Med Assn J. 2012; 184: E49-56. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.101863.
16. Egan BM, Zhao Y, Axon RN. US trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension, 1988-2008. JAMA. 2010; 303: 2043-2050. doi: 10.1001/jama.2010.650.
17. Yanes L, Reckelhoff J. Postmenopausal hypertension. Am J Hypertens. 2011; 24: 740-749. doi: 10.1038/ajh.2011.71.
18. Wang L, Szklo M, Folsom A, et al. Endogenous sex hormones, blood pressure change, and risk of hypertension in postmenopausal women: the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis. 2012; 224: 228-234. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.07.005.
19. Onat A, Can G, Hergenç G, et al. Serum apolipoprotein B predicts dyslipidemia, metabolic syndrome and, in women, hypertension, diabetes, independent of markers of central obesity and inflammation. Int J Obes. 2007; 31: 1119-1125. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803552.
20. Wakabayashi I. Stronger associations of obesity with prehypertension and hypertension in young women than in young men. J Hypertension. 2012; 30: 1423-1429. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0b013e3283544881.
21. Onat A, Yazici M, Can G, et al. Predictive value of prehypertension for metabolic syndrome, diabetes and coronary heart disease among Turks. Am J Hypertens. 2008; 21: 890-895. doi: 10.1038/ajh.2008.212.
22. Onat A, Can G, Örnek E, et al. Increased apolipoprotein A-I levels mediate the development of prehypertension among Turks. Anadolu Kardiyol Derg. 2013; 13: 306-314. doi: 10.5152/akd.2013.106.
23. Daugherty S, Masoudi F, Zeng C, et al. Sex differences in cardiovascular outcomes in patients with incident hypertension. J Hypertens. 2013; 31: 271-277. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0b013e32835bdc44.
24. Bellamy L, Casas J, Hingorani A, et al. Preeclampsia and risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer in later life: systematic review and meta-analysis. Bmj. 2007; 335: 974,86. doi: 10.1136/bmj.39335.385301.BE.
25. McDonald S, Malinowski A, Zhou Q, et al. Cardiovascular sequelae of preeclampsia/eclampsia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am Heart J. 2008; 156: 918-930.
26. Van Der Steeg WA, Holme I, Boekholdt SM, et al. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein particle size, and apolipoprotein A-I: significance for cardiovascular risk: the IDEAL and EPIC-Norfolk studies. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008; 51: 634-642. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2007.09.060.
27. Onat A, Can G, Ayhan E, et al. Impaired protection against diabetes and coronary disease by high-density lipoproteins in Turks. Metabolism. 2009; 58: 1393-1399. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2009.05.004.
28. Onat A, Hergenç G, Bulur S, et al. The paradox of high apolipoprotein A-I levels independently predicting incident type-2 diabetes among Turks. Int J Cardiol. 2010; 142: 72-79. doi: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2008.12.066.
29. Onat A, Hergenç G, Ayhan E, et al. Impaired anti-inflammatory function of apolipoprotein A-II concentrations predict metabolic syndrome and diabetes at 4 years follow-up in elderly Turks. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2009; 47: 1389-1394. doi: 10.1515/CCLM.2009.310.
30. Corsetti JP, Bakker SJ, Sparks CE, et al. Apolipoprotein A-II influences apolipoprotein E-linked cardiovascular disease in women with high levels of HDL cholesterol and C-reactive protein. PLoS One. 2012; 7: e39110.
31. Onat A, Hergenç G, Dursunoʇlu D, et al. Relatively high levels of serum adiponectin in obese women, a potential indicator of anti-inflammatory dysfunction: relation to sex hormone-binding globulin. Int J Biol Sci. 2008; 4: 208-214.
32. Onat A, Hergenç G, Can G, et al. Serum adiponectin confers little protection against diabetes and hypertension in Turkish men. Obesity. 2009; 17: 564-570. doi: 10.1038/oby.2008.564.
33. Onat A, Can G, Örnek E, et al. Abdominal obesity with hypertriglyceridemia, lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein A-I, determine marked cardiometabolic risk. Eur J Clin Invest. 2013; 43: 1129-1139. doi: 10.1111/eci.12150.
34. Mihailidou AS, Ashton AW. Cardiac effects of aldosterone: does gender matter? Steroids. 2014; 91: 32-37. doi: 10.1016/j.steroids.2014.08.013.
35. Leibundgut G, Arai K, Orsoni A, et al. Oxidized phospholipids are present on plasminogen, affect fibrinolysis, and increase following acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012; 59: 1426-1437. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.12.033.
36. Wang Z, Klipfell E, Bennett BJ, et al. Gut flora metabolism of posphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease. Nature. 2011; 472: 57-63. doi: 10.1038/nature09922.
37. Onat A, Çakmak HA, Can G, et al. Serum total and high-density lipoprotein phospholipids: independent predictive value for cardiometabolic risk. Clin Nutr. 2014; 33: 815-822. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2013.10.020.
38. Onat A, Hergenç G. Low-grade inflammation and dysfunction of high-density lipoprotein and its apolipoproteins as a major driver of cardiometabolic risk. Metabolism. 2011; 60: 499-512. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2010.04.018.
39. Lohner S, Fekete K, Marosvölgyi T, et al. Gender differences in the long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status: systematic review of 51 publications. Ann Nutr Metab. 2013; 62: 98-112.
40. Pettersson C, Fogelstrand L, Rosengren B, et al. Increased lipolysis by secretory phospholipase A2 group V of lipoproteins in diabetic dyslipidaemia. J Internal Med. 2008; 264: 155-165. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2008.01932.x.
41. Fruchart J-C, Sacks FM, Hermans MP, et al. The residual risk reduction initiative: a call to action to reduce residual vascular risk in dyslipidaemic patients. Diabetes Vasc Dis Res. 2008; 5: 319-335. doi: 10.3132/dvdr.2008.046.
42. Çoban N, Onat A, Güçlu-Geyik F, et al. Sex-and obesity-specific association of CYP19A1 gene variant with apolipoprotein B and hypertension. Arch Med Res. 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2015.09.004
43. Çoban N, Onat A, Yildirim Ö, et al. Oxidative stress-mediated (sex-specific) loss of protection against type-2 diabetes by macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF)-173G/C polymorphism. Clin Chim Acta. 2015; 438: 1-6. doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2014.07.037.
44. Onat A, Can G, Çoban N, et al. Lipoprotein(a) level and MIF gene variant predict incident metabolic syndrome and mortality. J Investig Med. 2016; 64: 392-399.
45. Çoban N, Onat A, Kömürcü-Bayrak E, et al. Gender-specific association of ABCA1 gene R219K variant in coronary disease risk through interactions with serum triglyceride elevation in Turkish adults. Anadolu Kardiyol Derg. 2014; 14: 18-25. doi: 10.5152/akd.2013.234.
46. Özsait B, Kömürcü-Bayrak E, Poda M, et al. CETP Taq1 B polymorphism in Turkish adults: association with dyslipidemia and metabolic syndrome. Anadolu Kardiyol Derg. 2008; 8: 324-330.
47. Kömürcü-Bayrak E, Onat A, Poda M, et al. Gender-modulated impact of apolipoprotein A5 gene (APOA5)-1131T > C and c.56C > G polymorphisms on lipids, atherogenic dyslipidemia and metabolic syndrome in Turkish adults. Clin Chem Lab Med. 2008; 46: 778-784. doi: 10.1515/CCLM.2008.161.
48. Çoban N, Onat A, Geyik F, et al. Gender-specific associations of the APOAI-75G > A polymorphism with several metabolic syndrome components in Turkish adults. Clin Chim Acta. 2014; 431C: 244-249. doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2014.01.017.
49. Güçlü-Geyik F, Onat A, Çoban N, et al. Minor allele of the apoA4 gene T347S polymorphism predisposes to obesity in postmenopausal Turkish women. Mol Biol Rep. 2012; 39: 10907-10914. doi: 10.1007/s11033-012-1990-4.
50. Onat A, Can G, Rezvani R, et al. Complement C3 and cleavage products in cardiometabolic risk. Clin Chim Acta. 2011; 412: 1171-1179. doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2011.03.005.
51. Onat A, Hergenç G, Uʇur M, et al. Lifestyle and metabolic determinants of incident hypertension, with special reference to cigarette smoking: a longitudinal population-based study. Am J Hypertens. 2009; 22: 156-162. doi: 10.1038/ajh.2008.332.
52. Howard BV, Robbins DC, Sievers ML., et al. LDL cholesterol as a strong predictor of coronary heart disease in diabetic individuals with insulin resistance and low LDL: the Strong Heart Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000; 20: 830-835.
53. Onat A, Özhan H, Esen AM, et al. Prospective epidemiologic evidence of a "protective" effect of smoking on metabolic syndrome and diabetes among Turkish women-without associated overall health benefit. Atherosclerosis. 2007; 193: 380-389. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2006.07.002.
54. Huxley RR, Woodward M. Cigarette smoking as a risk factor for coronary heart disease in women compared with men: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Lancet. 2011; 378: 1297-1305. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60984-7.
55. Rasouli B, Grill V, Midthjell K, et al. Smoking is associated with reduced risk of autoimmune diabetes in adults contrasting with increased risk in overweight men with type 2 diabetes: a 22-year follow-up of the HUNT study. Diabetes Care. 2013; 36: 604-610. doi: 10.2337/dc12-0913.
56. Nagaya T, Yoshida H, Takahashi H, et al. Heavy smoking raises risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus in obese men; but, light smoking reduces the risk in lean men: a follow-up study in Japan. Ann Epidemiol. 2008; 18: 113-118. doi: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2007.07.107.
57. Kwas̈niewska M, Pikala M, Kaczmarczyk-Chałas K, et al. Smoking status, the menopausal transition, and metabolic syndrome in women. Menopause. 2012; 19: 194-201. doi: 10.1097/gme.0b013e3182273035.
58. Onat A, Uʇur M, Can G, et al. Visceral adipose tissue and body fat mass: predictive values for and role of gender in cardiometabolic risk among Turks. Nutrition. 2010; 26: 382-389. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2009.05.019.
59. Mora S, Kamstrup PR, Rifai N, et al. Lipoprotein(a) and risk of type 2 diabetes. Clin Chem. 2010; 56: 1252-1260. doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2010.146779.
60. Stramba-Badiale M, Fox KM, Collins P, et al. Cardiovascular diseases in women: a statement from the policy conference of the European Society Cardiology. Eur Heart J. 2006; 27: 994-1005.
61. Kannel WB, Dannenberg AL, Abbott RD. Unrecognized myocardial infarction and hypertension: the Framingham study. Am Heart J. 1985; 109: 581-585.
62. Miller TD, Roger VL, Milavetz JJ, et al. Assessment of the exercise electrocardiogram in women versus men using tomographic myocardial perfusion imaging as the reference standard. Am J Cardiol. 2001; 87: 868-873.
63. Glaser R, Herrmann HC, Murphy SA, et al. Benefit of an early invasive management strategy in women with acute coronary syndrome. JAMA. 2002; 288: 3124-3129.
64. Jónsdóttir LS, Sigfússon N, Gudnason V, et al. Do lipids, blood pressure, diabetes, and smoking confer equal risk of myocardial infarction in women as in men? The Reykjavik Study. J Cardiovasc Risk. 2002; 9: 67-76. doi: 10.1177/174182670200900201.
65. Lloyd-Jones DM, Dyer AR, Wang R, et al. Risk factor burden in middle age and lifetime risks for cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular death (Chicago Heart Association Detection Project in Industry). Am J Cardiol. 2007; 99: 535-540. doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.09.099.
66. Petrea RE, Beiser AS, Seshadri S, et al. Gender differences in stroke incidence and poststroke disability in the Framingham heart study. Stroke. 2009; 40: 1032-1037. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.108.542894.
67. Lloyd-Jones DM, Larson MG, Leip EP, et al. Lifetime risk for developing congestive heart failure: the Framingham heart study. Circulation. 2002; 106: 3068-3072.
68. Leening MJ, Ferket BS, Steyerberg EW, et al. Sex difference in lifetime risk and first manifestation of cardiovascular disease: prospective population based cohort study. Bmj. 2014; 349: g5992.
69. Huffman MD, Berry JD, Ning H, et al. Lifetime risk for heart failure among white and black Americans: cardiovascular lifetime risk pooling project. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013; 61: 1510-1517. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2013.01.022.
70. Vasan RS, Larson MG, Benjamin EJ, et al. Congestive heart failure in subjects with normal versus reduced left ventricular ejection fraction: prevalence and mortality in a population-based cohort. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999; 33: 1948-1955.
71. Butler J, Kalogeropoulos AP, Georgiopoulou VV, et al. Systolic blood pressure and incident heart failure in the elderly. The cardiovascular health study and the health, ageing and body composition study. Heart. 2011; 97: 1304-1311. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2011.225482.
72. Peters SAE, Huxley RR, Woodward M. Comparison of the sex-specific associations between systolic blood pressure and the risk of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 124 cohort studies, including 1.2 million individuals. Stroke. 2013; 44: 2394-2401. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.001624.
73. Canto JG, Rogers WJ, Goldberg RJ, et al. Association of age and sex with myocardial infarction symptom presentation and in-hospital mortality. JAMA. 2012; 307: 813-822. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.199.
74. De-Miguel-Balsa E, Latour-Pérez J, Baeza-Román A, et al. Accessibility to reperfusion therapy among women with acute myocardial infarction: impact on hospital mortality. J Womens Health. 2015; 24: 882-888. doi: 10.1089/jwh.2014.5011.
75. Agrawal S, Van Eyk J, Sobhani K, et al. Sex, myocardial infarction, and the failure of risk scores in women. J Womens Health. 2015; 24: 859-861. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1089/jwh.2015.5412
76. Salton CJ, Chuang ML, ODonnell CJ, et al. Gender differences and normal left ventricular anatomy in an adult population free of hypertension: a cardiovascular magnetic resonance study of the Framingham Heart Study Offspring cohort. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002; 39: 1055-1060. doi: 10.1016/S0735-1097(02)01712-6.
77. Barthélémy O, Degrell P, Berman E, et al. Sex-related differences after contemporary primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Arch Cardiovasc Dis. 2015; 108: 428-436. [Epub ahead of print]. doi: 10.1016/j.acvd.2015.03.002
78. Astor BC, Coresh J, Heiss G, et al. Kidney function and anemia as risk factors for coronary heart disease and mortality: the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study. Am Heart J. 2006; 151: 492-500. doi: 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.10.019.
79. Karlsson V, Dankiewicz J, Nielsen N, et al. Association of gender to outcome after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest-a report from the international cardiac arrest registry. Crit Care. 2015; 19: 182. doi: 10.1186/s13054-015-0904-y.
80. Appelros P, Stegmayr B, Terent A. Sex differences in stroke epidemiology: a systematic review. Stroke. 2009; 40: 1082-1090. [PubMed: 19211488].
81. Reeves MJ, Bushnell CD, Howard G, et al. Sex differences in stroke: epidemiology, clinical presentation, medical care, and outcomes. Lancet Neurol. 2008; 7: 915-926. [PubMed: 18722812].
82. Davis CM, Fairbanks SL, Alkayed NJ. Mechanism of the sex difference in the mechanism of endothelial dysfunction after stroke. Transl Stroke Res. 2013; 4: 381-389. doi: 10.1007/s12975-012-0227-0.
83. Song X, Tabak AG, Zethelius B, et al. DECODE Study Group. Obesity attenuates gender differences in cardiovascular mortality. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2014; 13: #144. doi: 10.1186/1475-2840-13-80.
84. Johnson LSB, Juhlin T, Engström G, et al. Low fasting plasma insulin is associated with atrial fibrillation in men from a cohort study-the Malmö Preventive Project. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2014; 14: 107. doi: 10.1186/1471-2261-14-107.
85. Fang MC, Singer DE, Chang Y, et al. Gender differences in the risk of ischemic stroke and peripheral embolism in atrial fibrillation: the AnTicoagulation and Risk factors in Atrial fibrillation (ATRIA) study. Circulation. 2005; 112: 1687-1691. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.553438.
86. Jones DJ, Bromberger JT, Sutton-Tyrrell K, et al. Lifetime history of depression and carotid atherosclerosis in middle-aged women. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003; 60: 153-160. [PubMed 12578432].
87. Goldstein JM, Cherkerzian S, Buka S, et al. Sex-specific impact of maternal-fetal risk factors on depression and cardiovascular risk 40 years later. J Dev Orig Health Dis. 2011a; 2: 353-364. doi: 10.1017/S2040174411000651.
88. Moller-Leimkuhler AM., Gender differences in cardiovascular disease and comorbid depression. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2007; 9: 71-83. [PubMed: 17506227]
89. Kendler KS, Gatz M, Gardner CO, et al. A Swedish national twin study of lifetime major depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2006; 163: 109-114. [PubMed: 16390897].
90. Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, et al. The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA. 2003; 289: 3095-3105. [PubMed: 12813115].
91. Rozanski A, Blumenthal JA, Kaplan J., Impact of psychological factors on the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and implications for therapy. Circulation. 1999; 99: 2192-2217. [PubMed:10217662]
92. Rutledge T, Reis SE, Olson MB, et al. Depression symptom severity and reported treatment history in the prediction of cardiac risk in women with suspected myocardial ischemia: the NHLBI-sponsored WISE study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006; 63: 874-880. [PubMed: 16894063].
93. Vaccarino V, McClure C, Johnson BD, et al. Depression, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk. Psychosom Med. 2008; 70: 40-48. [PubMed: 18158378].
94. Heo M, Pietrobelli A, Fontaine KR, et al. Depressive mood and obesity in US adults: comparison and moderation by sex, age, and race. Int J Obes. 2006; 30: 513-519.
95. Onat A, Can G., Enhanced proinflammatory state and autoimmune activation: a breakthrough to understanding chronic diseases. Curr Pharm Des. 2014; 20: 575-584.
96. Daly CA, Clemens F, Sendon JL, et al.; Euro heart survey investigators. The clinical characteristics and investigations planned in patients with stable angina presenting to cardiologists in Europe: from the Euro heart survey of stable angina. Eur Heart J. 2005; 26: 996-1010.
97. Dodge JT Jr, Brown BG, Bolson EL, et al. Lumen diameter of human coronary arteries. Influence of age, sex, anatomic variation, and left ventricular hypertrophy or dilatation. Circulation. 1992; 86: 232-246.
98. Izadnegahdar M, Norris C, Kaul P, et al. Basis for sex-dependent outcomes in acute coronary syndrome. Can J Cardiol. 2014; 30: 713-720. doi: 10.1016/j.cjca.2013.08.020.
99. Di Carlo A, Lamassa M, Baldereschi M, et al. Sex differences in the clinical presentation, resource use, and 3-month outcome of acute stroke in Europe: data from a multicenter multinational hospital-based registry. Stroke. 2003; 34: 1114-1119. doi: 10.1161/01.STR.0000068410.07397.D7.
100. Ridker PM, Cook NR, Lee I-M, et al. A randomized trial of low-dose aspirin in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med. 2005; 352: 1293-1304. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa050613.
101. Boersma E, Harrington RA, Moliterno DJ, et al. Platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors in acute coronary syndromes: a meta-analysis of all major randomised clinical trials. Lancet. 2002; 302: 189-198. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07442-1.
102. Alexander KP, Chen AY, Newby LK, et al. Sex differences in major bleeding with glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors: results from the CRUSADE (can rapid risk stratification of unstable angina patients suppress adverse outcomes with early implementation of the ACC/AHA guidelines) initiative. Circulation. 2006; 114: 1380-1387. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.620815.