Pulmonary nodules and CT screening: The past, present and future

Thorax

Volumn 71, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 367-375

  Ruparel, M ^a   Quaife, S L ^a   Navani, N ^a,b   Wardle, J ^a   Janes, S M ^a   Baldwin, D R ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON HOSPITALS   (United Kingdom)

^c NOTTINGHAM UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS NHS TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CANCER EPIDEMIOLOGY; CANCER INCIDENCE; CANCER SCREENING; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DIAGNOSTIC ERROR; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; FALSE POSITIVE RESULT; HEALTH CARE ACCESS; HEALTH CARE COST; HUMAN; LUNG CANCER; LUNG NODULE; MEDICAL HISTORY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION HAZARD; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; SMOKING CESSATION; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; VOLUMETRY; EARLY CANCER DIAGNOSIS; LUNG TUMOR; MULTIPLE PULMONARY NODULES; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREDICTIVE VALUE; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; TRENDS; X-RAY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY;

EARLY DETECTION OF CANCER; GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; HUMANS; LUNG NEOPLASMS; MULTIPLE PULMONARY NODULES; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SOLITARY PULMONARY NODULE; TOMOGRAPHY, X-RAY COMPUTED;

EID: 84959279639     PISSN: 00406376     EISSN: 14683296     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2015-208107     Document Type: Review

References (98)

1. Walters S, Benitez-Majano S, Muller P, et al. Is England closing the international gap in cancer survival? Br J Cancer 2015;113:848-60.
2. Cancer Stats: Key Stats. 2015. http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-info/cancerstats/keyfacts/ (accessed 22 May 2015).
3. BRETT GZ. Bronchial carcinoma in men detected by selective and unselective miniature radiography: a review of 228 cases. Tubercle 1959;40:192-5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13804288 (accessed 22 Jul. 2015).
4. Marcus PM, Bergstralh EJ, Fagerstrom RM, et al. Lung cancer mortality in the Mayo Lung Project: impact of extended follow-up. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:1308-16. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10944552 (accessed 22 Jul. 2015).
5. Frost JK, Ball WC, Levin ML, et al. Early lung cancer detection: results of the initial (prevalence) radiologic and cytologic screening in the Johns Hopkins study. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984;130:549-54.
6. Melamed MR, Flehinger BJ, Zaman MB, et al. Screening for early lung cancer. Results of the Memorial Sloan-Kettering study in New York. Chest 1984;86:44-53.
7. Kubík A, Polák J. Lung cancer detection. Results of a randomized prospective study in Czechoslovakia. Cancer 1986;57:2427-37.
8. Strauss GM, Gleason RE, Sugarbaker DJ. Chest X-ray screening improves outcome in lung cancer. A reappraisal of randomized trials on lung cancer screening. Chest 1995;107:270S-9S.
9. Flehinger BJ, Kimmel M, Melamed MR. The effect of surgical treatment on survival from early lung cancer. Implications for screening. Chest 1992;101:1013-18.
10. Oken MM, Hocking WG, Kvale PA, et al. Screening by chest radiograph and lung cancer mortality: the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian (PLCO) randomized trial. JAMA 2011;306:1865-73.
11. Swensen SJ, Jett JR, Hartman TE, et al. CT screening for lung cancer: five-year prospective experience. Radiology 2005;235:259-65.
12. Swensen SJ, Jett JR, Hartman TE, et al. Lung cancer screening with CT: Mayo Clinic experience. Radiology 2003;226:756-61.
13. Henschke CI, McCauley DI, Yankelevitz DF, et al. Early Lung Cancer Action Project: overall design and findings from baseline screening. Lancet 1999;354:99-105.
14. Henschke CI, Yankelevitz DF, Libby DM, et al. Survival of patients with stage I lung cancer detected on CT screening. N Engl J Med 2006;355:1763-71.
15. Aberle DR, Adams AM, Berg CD, et al., National Lung Screening Trial Research Team. Reduced lung-cancer mortality with low-dose computed tomographic screening. N Engl J Med 2011;365:395-409.
16. Reich JM, Kim JS. The National Lung Screening Trial premise of null and chest radiography equivalence is open to question. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2015;205:278-9.
17. Field JK, Hansell DM, Duffy SW, et al. CT screening for lung cancer: countdown to implementation. Lancet Oncol 2013;14:e591-600.
18. Infante M, Lutman FR, Cavuto S, et al. Lung cancer screening with spiral CT: baseline results of the randomized DANTE trial. Lung Cancer 2008;59:355-63.
19. Lopes Pegna A, Picozzi G, Mascalchi M, et al. Design, recruitment and baseline results of the ITALUNG trial for lung cancer screening with low-dose CT. Lung Cancer 2009;64:34-40.
20. Pastorino U, Rossi M, Rosato V, et al. Annual or biennial CT screening versus observation in heavy smokers: 5-year results of the MILD trial. Eur J Cancer Prev 2012;21:308-15.
21. Pedersen JH, Ashraf H, Dirksen A, et al. The Danish randomized lung cancer CT screening trial-overall design and results of the prevalence round. J Thorac Oncol 2009;4:608-14.
22. Veronesi G, Maisonneuve P, Rampinelli C, et al. Computed tomography screening for lung cancer: results of ten years of annual screening and validation of cosmos prediction model. Lung Cancer 2013;82:426-30.
23. Blanchon T, Bréchot JM, Grenier PA, et al. Baseline results of the Depiscan study: a French randomized pilot trial of lung cancer screening comparing low dose CT scan (LDCT) and chest X-ray (CXR). Lung Cancer 2007;58:50-8.
24. Field JK, van Klaveren R, Pedersen JH, et al. European randomized lung cancer screening trials: post NLST. J Surg Oncol 2013;108:280-6.
25. Harders SW, Madsen HH, Rasmussen TR, et al. High resolution spiral CT for determining the malignant potential of solitary pulmonary nodules: refining and testing the test. Acta Radiol 2011;52:401-9.
26. de Hoop B, van Ginneken B, Gietema H, et al. Pulmonary perifissural nodules on CT scans: rapid growth is not a predictor of malignancy. Radiology 2012;265:611-16.
27. Henschke CI, Yankelevitz DF, Yip R, et al. Lung cancers diagnosed at annual CT screening: volume doubling times. Radiology 2012;263:578-83.
28. Ashraf H, Dirksen A, Loft A, et al. Combined use of positron emission tomography and volume doubling time in lung cancer screening with low-dose CT scanning. Thorax 2011;66:315-19.
29. Mehta HJ, Ravenel JG, Shaftman SR, et al. The utility of nodule volume in the context of malignancy prediction for small pulmonary nodules. Chest 2014;145:464-72.
30. Horeweg N, van Rosmalen J, Heuvelmans MA, et al. Lung cancer probability in patients with CT-detected pulmonary nodules: a prespecified analysis of data from the NELSON trial of low-dose CT screening. Lancet Oncol 2014;15:1332-41.
31. Herder GJ, van Tinteren H, Golding RP, et al. Clinical prediction model to characterize pulmonary nodules: validation and added value of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Chest 2005;128:2490-6.
32. McWilliams A, Tammemagi MC, Mayo JR, et al. Probability of cancer in pulmonary nodules detected on first screening CT. N Engl J Med 2013;369:910-19.
33. Al-Ameri A, Malhotra P, Thygesen H, et al. Risk of malignancy in pulmonary nodules: a validation study of four prediction models. Lung Cancer 2015;89:27-30.
34. MacMahon H, Austin JHM, Gamsu G, et al. Guidelines for management of small pulmonary nodules detected on CT scans: a statement from the Fleischner Society. Radiology 2005;237:395-400.
35. Gould MK, Donington J, Lynch WR, et al. Evaluation of individuals with pulmonary nodules: when is it lung cancer? Diagnosis and management of lung cancer, 3rd ed: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2013;143:e93S-120S.
36. Naidich DP, Bankier AA, MacMahon H, et al. Recommendations for the management of subsolid pulmonary nodules detected at CT: a statement from the Fleischner Society. Radiology 2013;266:304-17.
37. American College of Radiology. Lung CT Screening Reporting and Data System (Lung-RADS"). American College of Radiology. http://www.acr.org/Quality-Safety/Resources/LungRADS (accessed 20 Aug. 2015).
38. Tanner NT, Aggarwal J, Gould MK, et al. Management of pulmonary nodules by community pulmonologists: a multicenter observational study. Chest 2015;148:1405-14.
39. Baldwin DR, Callister ME. The British Thoracic Society guidelines on the investigation and management of pulmonary nodules. Thorax 2015;70:794-8.
40. Mazzone P, Powell CA, Arenberg D, et al. Components necessary for high quality lung cancer screening: American College of Chest Physicians and American Thoracic Society policy statement. Chest 2015;147:295-303.
41. Wood DE. National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) Clinical Practice Guidelines for Lung Cancer Screening. Thorac Surg Clin 2015;25:185-97.
42. Kazerooni EA, Armstrong MR, Amorosa JK, et al. ACR CT accreditation program and the lung cancer screening program designation. J Am Coll Radiol 2015;12:38-42.
43. Decision Memo for Screening for Lung Cancer with Low Dose Computed Tomography (LDCT) (CAG-00439N). http://www.cms.gov/medicare-coveragedatabase/details/nca-decision-memo.aspx?NCAId=274&NcaName=Screening+for +Lung+Cancer+with+Low+Dose+Computed+Tomography+(LDCT)&TimeFrame=7&DocType=All&bc=AQAAIAAAAgAAAA%3d%3d& (accessed 22 Mar. 2015).
44. CDC. National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program (NBCCEDP). http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/nbccedp/index.htm (accessed 20 Aug. 2015).
45. Lung Cancer Screening Registry-American College of Radiology. http://www.acr.org/Quality-Safety/National-Radiology-Data-Registry/Lung-Cancer-Screening-Registry (accessed 21 Aug. 2015).
46. Kauczor HU, Bonomo L, Gaga M, et al, European Society of Radiology (ESR) and European Respiratory Society (ERS). ESR/ERS White paper on lung cancer screening. Eur Radiol 2015;25:2519-31.
47. Zhao SJ, Wu N. Early detection of lung cancer: low-dose computed tomography screening in China. Thorac Cancer 2015;6:385-9.
48. The UK NSC recommendation on Lung Cancer Screening. http://www.screening.nhs.uk/lungcancer (accessed 26 Feb. 2015).
49. ACE Programme projects | Cancer Research UK. http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/health-professional/early-diagnosis-activities/ace-programme/ace-programme-projects (accessed 25 Aug. 2015).
50. Wilson JMG, Jungner G. Principles and practice of screening for disease. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1968. http://www.who.int/iris/handle/10665/37650 (accessed 25 Aug. 2015).
51. Criteria for appraising the viability, effectiveness and appropriateness of a screening programme. UK National Screening Committee. https://www.gov. uk/government/publications/evidence-review-criteria-national-screening-programmes/criteria-forappraising-the-viability-effectiveness-and-appropriateness-of-a-screening-programme (accessed 18 Sep. 2015).
52. Callister MEJ, Baldwin DR, Akram AR, et al. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the investigation and management of pulmonary nodules. Thorax 2015;70(Suppl 2):ii1-54.
53. Patz EF, Pinsky P, Gatsonis C, et al. Overdiagnosis in low-dose computed tomography screening for lung cancer. JAMA Intern Med 2014;174:269-74.
54. Kovalchik SA, Tammemagi M, Berg CD, et al. Targeting of low-dose CT screening according to the risk of lung-cancer death. N Engl J Med 2013;369:245-54.
55. Field JK, Duffy SW, Baldwin DR, et al. UK Lung Cancer RCT Pilot Screening Trial: baseline findings from the screening arm provide evidence for the potential implementation of lung cancer screening. Thorax 2016;71:161-70.
56. Horeweg N, Th Scholten E, de Jong PA, et al. Detection of lung cancer through low-dose CT screening (NELSON): a prespecified analysis of screening test performance and interval cancers. Lancet Oncol 2014;15:1342-50.
57. Slatore CG, Sullivan DR, Pappas M, et al. Patient-centered outcomes among lung cancer screening recipients with computed tomography: a systematic review. J Thorac Oncol 2014;9:927-34.
58. Gareen IF, Duan F, Greco EM, et al. Impact of lung cancer screening results on participant health-related quality of life and state anxiety in The National Lung Screening Trial. Cancer 2014;120:3401-9.
59. van den Bergh KAM, Essink-Bot ML, Borsboom G J JM, et al. Long-term effects of lung cancer computed tomography screening on health-related quality of life: the NELSON trial. Eur Respir J 2011;38:154-61.
60. Bond M, Pavey T, Welch K, et al. Systematic review of the psychological consequences of false-positive screening mammograms. Health Technol Assess 2013;17:1-170, v-vi.
61. Wiener RS, Gould MK, Woloshin S, et al. What do you mean, a spot?: A qualitative analysis of patients' reactions to discussions with their physicians about pulmonary nodules. Chest 2013;143:672-7.
62. Renzi C, Whitaker KL, Wardle J. Over-reassurance and undersupport after a 'false alarm': a systematic review of the impact on subsequent cancer symptom attribution and help seeking. BMJ Open 2015;5:e007002.
63. Tanner NT, Gebregziabher M, Hughes Halbert C, et al. Racial differences in outcomes within The National Lung Screening Trial. Implications for widespread implementation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015;192:200-8.
64. Ruparel M, Navani N. Fulfilling the Dream. Toward reducing inequalities in Lung Cancer Screening. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2015;192:125-7.
65. Chiles C, Duan F, Gladish GW, et al. Association of coronary artery calcification and mortality in the National Lung Screening Trial: a comparison of three scoring methods. Radiology 2015;276:82-90.
66. Wu MT, Yang P, Huang YL, et al. Coronary arterial calcification on low-dose ungated MDCT for lung cancer screening: concordance study with dedicated cardiac CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008;190:923-8.
67. Wille MM, Thomsen LH, Petersen J, et al. Visual assessment of early emphysema and interstitial abnormalities on CT is useful in lung cancer risk analysis. Eur Radiol 2016;26:487-94.
68. Buckens CF, van der Graaf Y, Verkooijen HM, et al. Osteoporosis markers on low-dose lung cancer screening chest computed tomography scans predict all-cause mortality. Eur Radiol 2015;25:132-9.
69. van der Aalst CM, van den Bergh KAM, Willemsen MC, et al. Lung cancer screening and smoking abstinence: 2 year follow-up data from the Dutch-Belgian randomised controlled lung cancer screening trial. Thorax 2010;65:600-5.
70. MacRedmond R, McVey G, Lee M, et al. Screening for lung cancer using low dose CT scanning: results of 2 year follow up. Thorax 2006;61:54-6.
71. Schnoll RA, Miller SM, Unger M, et al. Characteristics of female smokers attending a lung cancer screening program: a pilot study with implications for program development. Lung Cancer 2002;37:257-65. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12234693 (accessed 26 Nov. 2014).
72. Cox LS, Clark MM, Jett JR, et al. Change in smoking status after spiral chest computed tomography scan screening. Cancer 2003;98:2495-501.
73. van der Aalst CM, van Klaveren RJ, van den Bergh KAM, et al. The impact of a lung cancer computed tomography screening result on smoking abstinence. Eur Respir J 2011;37:1466-73.
74. Ashraf H, Saghir Z, Dirksen A, et al. Smoking habits in the randomised Danish Lung Cancer Screening Trial with low-dose CT: final results after a 5-year screening programme. Thorax 2014;69:574-9.
75. Anderson CM, Yip R, Henschke CI, et al. Smoking cessation and relapse during a lung cancer screening program. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2009;18:3476-83.
76. Tammemägi MC, Berg CD, Riley TL, et al. Impact of lung cancer screening results on smoking cessation. J Natl Cancer Inst 2014;106:dju084.
77. Townsend CO, Clark MM, Jett JR, et al. Relation between smoking cessation and receiving results from three annual spiral chest computed tomography scans for lung carcinoma screening. Cancer 2005;103:2154-62.
78. Taylor KL, Cox LS, Zincke N, et al. Lung cancer screening as a teachable moment for smoking cessation. Lung Cancer 2007;56:125-34.
79. Villanti AC, Jiang Y, Abrams DB, et al. A cost-utility analysis of lung cancer screening and the additional benefits of incorporating smoking cessation interventions. PLoS ONE 2013;8:e71379.
80. Black WC, Gareen IF, Soneji SS, et al. Cost-effectiveness of CT screening in The National Lung Screening Trial. N Engl J Med 2014;371:1793-802.
81. McMahon PM, Kong CY, Bouzan C, et al. Cost-effectiveness of computed tomography screening for lung cancer in the United States. J Thorac Oncol 2011;6:1841-8.
82. Doria-Rose VP, White MC, Klabunde CN, et al. Use of lung cancer screening tests in the United States: results from the 2010 National Health Interview Survey. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2012;21:1049-59.
83. Yankelevitz DF, Reeves AP, Kostis WJ, et al. Small pulmonary nodules: volumetrically determined growth rates based on CT evaluation. Radiology 2000;217:251-6.
84. Logan RFA, Patnick J, Nickerson C, et al. Outcomes of the Bowel Cancer Screening Programme (BCSP) in England after the first 1 million tests. Gut 2012;61:1439-46.
85. NHS Breast Screening Programme 2011 Annual Review. http://www.cancerscreening.nhs.uk/breastscreen/publications/2011review.html (accessed 19 Sep. 2015).
86. Altobelli E, Lattanzi A, Paduano R, et al. Colorectal cancer prevention in Europe: burden of disease and status of screening programs. Prev Med 2014;62:132-41.
87. Altobelli E, Lattanzi A. Breast cancer in European Union: An update of screening programmes as of March 2014 (review). Int J Oncol 2014;45:1785-92. http://www.spandidos-publications.com/ijo/45/5/1785/abstract (accessed 19 Sep. 2015).
88. van Klaveren RJ, Oudkerk M, Prokop M, et al. Management of lung nodules detected by volume CT scanning. N Engl J Med 2009;361:2221-9.
89. McRonald FE, Yadegarfar G, Baldwin DR, et al. The UK Lung Screen (UKLS): demographic profile of first 88, 897 approaches provides recommendations for population screening. Cancer Prev Res 2014;7:362-71.
90. Aberle DR, Adams AM, Berg CD, et al. Baseline characteristics of participants in the randomized National Lung Screening Trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 2010;102:1771-9.
91. Hestbech MS, Siersma V, Dirksen A, et al. Participation bias in a randomised trial of screening for lung cancer. Lung Cancer 2011;73:325-31.
92. Byrne MM, Davila EP, Zhao W, et al. Cancer screening behaviors among smokers and non-smokers. Cancer Epidemiol 2010;34:611-17.
93. Fiona Dawe O. Chapter 1-Smoking (General Lifestyle Survey Overview-a report on the 2011 General Lifestyle Survey). http://www.ons.gov. uk/ons/rel/ghs/general-lifestyle-survey/2011/rpt-chapter-1.html (accessed 28 Nov. 2014).
94. Siahpush M, McNeill A, Borland R, et al. Socioeconomic variations in nicotine dependence, self-efficacy, and intention to quit across four countries: findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey. Tob Control 2006;15(Suppl 3):iii71-5.
95. Patel D, Akporobaro A, Chinyanganya N, et al. Attitudes to participation in a lung cancer screening trial: a qualitative study. Thorax 2012;67:418-25.
96. Quaife SL, McEwen A, Janes SM, et al. Attitudes towards lung cancer screening within socioeconomically deprived and heavy smoking communities: a qualitative study. Lancet 2014;384:S16.
97. Quaife SL, McEwen A, Janes SM, et al. Smoking is associated with pessimistic and avoidant beliefs about cancer: results from the International Cancer Benchmarking Partnership. Br J Cancer 2015;112:1799-804.
98. Ford ME, Havstad SL, Flickinger L, et al. Examining the effects of false positive lung cancer screening results on subsequent lung cancer screening adherence. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2003;12:28-33. http://cebp. aacrjournals.org/content/12/1/28.full (accessed 4 May 2015).