Intestinal GLP-1 and satiation: From man to rodents and back

International Journal of Obesity

Volumn 40, Issue 2, 2016, Pages 198-205

  Steinert, R E ^a   Beglinger, C ^b   Langhans, W ^c  

^a DSM NUTRITIONAL PRODUCTS LTD   (Switzerland)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL BASEL   (Switzerland)

^c ETH ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHOLECYSTOKININ; EXENDIN 4; FRUCTOSE; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1 RECEPTOR; GLUCOSE; PEPTIDE YY [3-36]; WATER;

APPETITE; ARCUATE NUCLEUS; AREA POSTREMA; ARTICLE; BRAIN FOURTH VENTRICLE; CALORIC INTAKE; CIRCUMVENTRICULAR ORGAN; ENTEROENDOCRINE CELL; FOOD INTAKE; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMAN; HYDROLYSIS; INSULA; LAMINA PROPRIA; LEAN BODY WEIGHT; MALAISE; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS; OBESITY; ORBITAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; PROTEIN SECRETION; PUTAMEN; SATIETY; SOLITARY TRACT NUCLEUS; STOMACH EMPTYING; WEIGHT REDUCTION; ANIMAL; ANTAGONISTS AND INHIBITORS; DRUG EFFECTS; EATING; GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY; METABOLISM; MOUSE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; RAT; SECRETION (PROCESS);

ANIMALS; APPETITE; EATING; GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY; GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE 1; GLUCAGON-LIKE PEPTIDE-1 RECEPTOR; HUMANS; MICE; OBESITY; RATS; SATIATION;

EID: 84957843957     PISSN: 03070565     EISSN: 14765497     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/ijo.2015.172     Document Type: Article

References (92)

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2. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO consultation. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 2000; 894: i-xii, 1-253.
3. Stefater MA, Wilson-Perez HE, Chambers AP, Sandoval DA, Seeley RJ. All bariatric surgeries are not created equal: insights from mechanistic comparisons. Endocr Rev 2012; 33: 595-622.
4. Peterli R, Steinert RE, Woelnerhanssen B, Peters T, Christoffel-Courtin C, Gass M et al. Metabolic and hormonal changes after laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy: a randomized, prospective trial. Obes Surg 2012; 22: 740-748.
5. Harvey EJ, Arroyo K, Korner J, Inabnet WB. Hormone changes affecting energy homeostasis after metabolic surgery. Mt Sinai J Med 2010; 77: 446-465.
6. Gibbs J, Young RC, Smith GP. Cholecystokinin decreases food intake in rats. J. Comp Physiol Psychol 1973; 84: 488-495.
7. Smith GP, Gibbs J. Gut peptides and postprandial satiety. Fed Proc 1984; 43: 2889-2892.
8. Geary N. Endocrine controls of eating: CCK, leptin, and ghrelin. Physiol Behav 2004; 81: 719-733.
9. Geary N, Moran TH. Basic science of appetite. In: Sadock BJ, Sadock VA, Ruiz P (eds). Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9th edn. Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkens, 2009, pp 375-387.
10. Beglinger C, Degen L. Gastrointestinal satiety signals in humans-physiologic roles for GLP-1 and PYY? Physiol Behav 2006; 89: 460-464.
11. Read NW, McFarlane A, Kinsman RI, Bates TE, Blackhall NW, Farrar GB et al. Effect of infusion of nutrient solutions into the ileum on gastrointestinal transit and plasma levels of neurotensin and enteroglucagon. Gastroenterology 1984; 86: 274-280.
12. Spiller RC, Trotman IF, Higgins BE, Ghatei MA, Grimble GK, Lee YC et al. The ileal brake-inhibition of jejunal motility after ileal fat perfusion in man. Gut 1984; 25: 365-374.
13. Elliott RM, Morgan LM, Tredger JA, Deacon S, Wright J, Marks V. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36)amide and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide secretion in response to nutrient ingestion in man: acute post-prandial and 24-h secretion patterns. J Endocrinol 1993; 138: 159-166.
14. Orskov C, Wettergren A, Holst JJ. Secretion of the incretin hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 and gastric inhibitory polypeptide correlates with insulin secretion in normal man throughout the day. Scand J Gastroenterol 1996; 31: 665-670.
15. Holst JJ. The physiology of glucagon-like peptide 1. Physiol Rev 2007; 87: 1409-1439.
16. Herrmann C, Goke R, Richter G, Fehmann HC, Arnold R, Goke B. Glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulin-releasing polypeptide plasma levels in response to nutrients. Digestion 1995; 56: 117-126.
17. Bowen J, Noakes M, Clifton PM. Appetite hormones and energy intake in obese men after consumption of fructose, glucose and whey protein beverages. Int J Obes (Lond) 2007; 31: 1696-1703.
18. Meyer-Gerspach AC, Wolnerhanssen B, Beglinger B, Nessenius F, Napitupulu M, Schulte FH et al. Gastric and intestinal satiation in obese and normal weight healthy people. Physiol Behav 2014; 22: 265-271.
19. Beglinger S, Drewe J, Schirra J, Göke B, D'Amato M, Beglinger C. Role of fat hydrolysis in regulating glucagon-like Peptide-1 secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 879-886.
20. Feltrin KL, Little TJ, Meyer JH, Horowitz M, AJPM Smout, Wishart J et al. Effects of intraduodenal fatty acids on appetite, antropyloroduodenal motility, and plasma CCK and GLP-1 in humans vary with their chain length. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2004; 287: R524-R533.
21. Hansen KB, Rosenkilde MM, Knop FK, Wellner N, Diep TA, Rehfeld JF et al. 2-Oleoyl glycerol is a GPR119 agonist and signals GLP-1 release in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96: E1409-E1417.
22. Steinert RE, Luscombe-Marsh ND, Little TJ, Standfield S, Otto B, Horowitz M et al. Effects of intraduodenal infusion of L-tryptophan on ad libitum eating, antropyloroduodenal motility, glycemia, insulinemia and gut peptide secretion in healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99: 3275-3284.
23. Chang J, Wu T, Greenfield JR, Samocha-Bonet D, Horowitz M, Rayner CK. Effects of intraduodenal glutamine on incretin hormone and insulin release, the glycemic response to an intraduodenal glucose infusion, and antropyloroduodenal motility in health and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2013; 36: 2262-2265.
24. Carr RD, Larsen MO, Jelic K, Lindgren O, Vikman J, Holst JJ et al. Secretion and dipeptidyl peptidase-4-mediated metabolism of incretin hormones after a mixed meal or glucose ingestion in obese compared to lean, nondiabetic men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 872-878.
25. Adam TC, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Glucagon-like peptide-1 release and satiety after a nutrient challenge in normal-weight and obese subjects. Br J Nutr 2005; 93: 845-851.
26. Verdich C, Toubro S, Buemann B, Lysgard Madsen J, Juul Holst J, Astrup A. The role of postprandial releases of insulin and incretin hormones in meal-induced satiety-effect of obesity and weight reduction. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001; 25: 1206-1214.
27. Borg CM, le Roux CW, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR, Patel AG, Aylwin SJ. Progressive rise in gut hormone levels after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass suggests gut adaptation and explains altered satiety. Br J Surg 2006; 93: 210-215.
28. le Roux CW, Welbourn R, Werling M, Osborne A, Kokkinos A, Laurenius A et al. Gut hormones as mediators of appetite and weight loss after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Ann Surg 2007; 246: 780-785.
29. Ryan AT, Feinle-Bisset C, Kallas A, Wishart JM, Clifton PM, Horowitz M et al. Intraduodenal protein modulates antropyloroduodenal motility, hormone release, glycemia, appetite, and energy intake in lean men. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 96: 474-482.
30. Pilichiewicz AN, Chaikomin R, Brennan IM, Wishart JM, Rayner CK, Jones KL et al. Load-dependent effects of duodenal glucose on glycemia, gastrointestinal hormones, antropyloroduodenal motility, and energy intake in healthy men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2007; 293: E743-E753.
31. Little TJ, Feltrin KL, Horowitz M, Smout AJ, Rades T, Meyer JH et al. Dose-related effects of lauric acid on antropyloroduodenal motility, gastrointestinal hormone release, appetite, and energy intake in healthy men. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2005; 289: R1090-R1098.
32. Seimon RV, Lange K, Little TJ, Brennan IM, Pilichiewicz AN, Feltrin KL et al. Pooleddata analysis identifies pyloric pressures and plasma cholecystokinin concentrations as major determinants of acute energy intake in healthy, lean men. Am J Clin Nutr 2010; 92: 61-68.
33. Steinert RE, Frey F, Toepfer A, Drewe J, Beglinger C. Effects of carbohydrate sugars and artificial sweeteners on appetite and the secretion of gastrointestinal satiety peptides. Br J Nutr 2011; 105: 1320-1328.
34. Lemmens SG, Martens EA, Kester AD, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Changes in gut hormone and glucose concentrations in relation to hunger and fullness. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 94: 717-725.
35. Gibbons C, Caudwell P, Finlayson G, Webb DL, Hellstrom PM, Naslund E et al. Comparison of postprandial profiles of ghrelin, active GLP-1, and total PYY to meals varying in fat and carbohydrate and their association with hunger and the phases of satiety. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98: E847-E855.
36. D'Alessio D, Lu W, Sun W, Zheng S, Yang Q, Seeley R et al. Fasting and postprandial concentrations of GLP-1 in intestinal lymph and portal plasma: evidence for selective release of GLP-1 in the lymph system. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2007; 293: R2163-R2169.
37. Iritani N, Sugimoto T, Fukuda H, Komiya M, Ikeda H. Oral triacylglycerols regulate plasma glucagon-like peptide-1(7-36) and insulin levels in normal and especially in obese rats. J Nutr 1999; 129: 46-50.
38. Anini Y, Fu-Cheng X, Cuber JC, Kervran A, Chariot J, Roz C. Comparison of the postprandial release of peptide YY and proglucagon-derived peptides in the rat. Pflugers Arch 1999; 438: 299-306.
39. Yoder SM, Yang Q, Kindel TL, Tso P. Stimulation of incretin secretion by dietary lipid: is it dose dependent? Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2009; 297: G299-G305.
40. Hansen HS, Rosenkilde MM, Holst JJ, Schwartz TW. GPR119 as a fat sensor. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2012; 33: 374-381.
41. Punjabi M, Arnold M, Ruttimann E, Graber M, Geary N, Pacheco-Lopez G et al. Circulating glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) inhibits eating in male rats by acting in the hindbrain and without inducing avoidance. Endocrinology 2014; 155: 1690-1699.
42. Arnold M, Dai Y, Tso P, Langhans W. Meal-contingent intestinal lymph sampling from awake, unrestrained rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2012; 302: R1365-R1371.
43. Alvarez E, Martinez MD, Roncero I, Chowen JA, Garcia-Cuartero B, Gispert JD et al. The expression of GLP-1 receptor mRNA and protein allows the effect of GLP-1 on glucose metabolism in the human hypothalamus and brainstem. J Neurochem 2005; 92: 798-806.
44. Hansen L, Deacon CF, Orskov C, Holst JJ. Glucagon-like peptide-1-(7-36)amide is transformed to glucagon-like peptide-1-(9-36)amide by dipeptidyl peptidase IV in the capillaries supplying the L cells of the porcine intestine. Endocrinology 1999; 140: 5356-5363.
45. Plamboeck A, Veedfald S, Deacon CF, Hartmann B, Wettergren A, Svendsen LB et al. The effect of exogenous GLP-1 on food intake is lost in male truncally vagotomized subjects with pyloroplasty. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2013; 304: G1117-G1127.
46. Orskov C, Poulsen SS, Moller M, Holst JJ. Glucagon-like peptide I receptors in the subfornical organ and the area postrema are accessible to circulating glucagonlike peptide I. Diabetes 1996; 45: 832-835.
47. WHO. Obesity and overweight Fact sheet no 311. WHO Media Centre, 2012.
48. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO consultation. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 2000; 894: i-xii, 1-253.
49. Stefater MA, Wilson-Perez HE, Chambers AP, Sandoval DA, Seeley RJ. All bariatric surgeries are not created equal: insights from mechanistic comparisons. Endocr Rev 2012; 33: 595-622.
50. Peterli R, Steinert RE, Woelnerhanssen B, Peters T, Christoffel-Courtin C, Gass M et al. Metabolic and hormonal changes after laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy: a randomized, prospective trial. Obes Surg 2012; 22: 740-748.
51. Harvey EJ, Arroyo K, Korner J, Inabnet WB. Hormone changes affecting energy homeostasis after metabolic surgery. Mt Sinai J Med 2010; 77: 446-465.
52. Gibbs J, Young RC, Smith GP. Cholecystokinin decreases food intake in rats. J. Comp Physiol Psychol 1973; 84: 488-495.
53. Smith GP, Gibbs J. Gut peptides and postprandial satiety. Fed Proc 1984; 43: 2889-2892.
54. Geary N. Endocrine controls of eating: CCK, leptin, and ghrelin. Physiol Behav 2004; 81: 719-733.
55. Geary N, Moran TH. Basic science of appetite. In: Sadock BJ, Sadock VA, Ruiz P (eds). Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, 9th edn. Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkens, 2009, pp 375-387.
56. Beglinger C, Degen L. Gastrointestinal satiety signals in humans-physiologic roles for GLP-1 and PYY? Physiol Behav 2006; 89: 460-464.
57. Read NW, McFarlane A, Kinsman RI, Bates TE, Blackhall NW, Farrar GB et al. Effect of infusion of nutrient solutions into the ileum on gastrointestinal transit and plasma levels of neurotensin and enteroglucagon. Gastroenterology 1984; 86: 274-280.
58. Spiller RC, Trotman IF, Higgins BE, Ghatei MA, Grimble GK, Lee YC et al. The ileal brake-inhibition of jejunal motility after ileal fat perfusion in man. Gut 1984; 25: 365-374.
59. Elliott RM, Morgan LM, Tredger JA, Deacon S, Wright J, Marks V. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36)amide and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide secretion in response to nutrient ingestion in man: acute post-prandial and 24-h secretion patterns. J Endocrinol 1993; 138: 159-166.
60. Orskov C, Wettergren A, Holst JJ. Secretion of the incretin hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 and gastric inhibitory polypeptide correlates with insulin secretion in normal man throughout the day. Scand J Gastroenterol 1996; 31: 665-670.
61. Holst JJ. The physiology of glucagon-like peptide 1. Physiol Rev 2007; 87: 1409-1439.
62. Herrmann C, Goke R, Richter G, Fehmann HC, Arnold R, Goke B. Glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulin-releasing polypeptide plasma levels in response to nutrients. Digestion 1995; 56: 117-126.
63. Bowen J, Noakes M, Clifton PM. Appetite hormones and energy intake in obese men after consumption of fructose, glucose and whey protein beverages. Int J Obes (Lond) 2007; 31: 1696-1703.
64. Meyer-Gerspach AC, Wolnerhanssen B, Beglinger B, Nessenius F, Napitupulu M, Schulte FH et al. Gastric and intestinal satiation in obese and normal weight healthy people. Physiol Behav 2014; 22: 265-271.
65. Beglinger S, Drewe J, Schirra J, Göke B, D'Amato M, Beglinger C. Role of fat hydrolysis in regulating glucagon-like Peptide-1 secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 879-886.
66. Feltrin KL, Little TJ, Meyer JH, Horowitz M, AJPM Smout, Wishart J et al. Effects of intraduodenal fatty acids on appetite, antropyloroduodenal motility, and plasma CCK and GLP-1 in humans vary with their chain length. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2004; 287: R524-R533.
67. Hansen KB, Rosenkilde MM, Knop FK, Wellner N, Diep TA, Rehfeld JF et al. 2-Oleoyl glycerol is a GPR119 agonist and signals GLP-1 release in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96: E1409-E1417.
68. Steinert RE, Luscombe-Marsh ND, Little TJ, Standfield S, Otto B, Horowitz M et al. Effects of intraduodenal infusion of L-tryptophan on ad libitum eating, antropyloroduodenal motility, glycemia, insulinemia and gut peptide secretion in healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2014; 99: 3275-3284.
69. Chang J, Wu T, Greenfield JR, Samocha-Bonet D, Horowitz M, Rayner CK. Effects of intraduodenal glutamine on incretin hormone and insulin release, the glycemic response to an intraduodenal glucose infusion, and antropyloroduodenal motility in health and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2013; 36: 2262-2265.
70. Carr RD, Larsen MO, Jelic K, Lindgren O, Vikman J, Holst JJ et al. Secretion and dipeptidyl peptidase-4-mediated metabolism of incretin hormones after a mixed meal or glucose ingestion in obese compared to lean, nondiabetic men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010; 95: 872-878.
71. Adam TC, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Glucagon-like peptide-1 release and satiety after a nutrient challenge in normal-weight and obese subjects. Br J Nutr 2005; 93: 845-851.
72. Verdich C, Toubro S, Buemann B, Lysgard Madsen J, Juul Holst J, Astrup A. The role of postprandial releases of insulin and incretin hormones in meal-induced satiety-effect of obesity and weight reduction. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2001; 25: 1206-1214.
73. Borg CM, le Roux CW, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR, Patel AG, Aylwin SJ. Progressive rise in gut hormone levels after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass suggests gut adaptation and explains altered satiety. Br J Surg 2006; 93: 210-215.
74. le Roux CW, Welbourn R, Werling M, Osborne A, Kokkinos A, Laurenius A et al. Gut hormones as mediators of appetite and weight loss after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Ann Surg 2007; 246: 780-785.
75. Ryan AT, Feinle-Bisset C, Kallas A, Wishart JM, Clifton PM, Horowitz M et al. Intraduodenal protein modulates antropyloroduodenal motility, hormone release, glycemia, appetite, and energy intake in lean men. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 96: 474-482.
76. Pilichiewicz AN, Chaikomin R, Brennan IM, Wishart JM, Rayner CK, Jones KL et al. Load-dependent effects of duodenal glucose on glycemia, gastrointestinal hormones, antropyloroduodenal motility, and energy intake in healthy men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2007; 293: E743-E753.
77. Little TJ, Feltrin KL, Horowitz M, Smout AJ, Rades T, Meyer JH et al. Dose-related effects of lauric acid on antropyloroduodenal motility, gastrointestinal hormone release, appetite, and energy intake in healthy men. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2005; 289: R1090-R1098.
78. Seimon RV, Lange K, Little TJ, Brennan IM, Pilichiewicz AN, Feltrin KL et al. Pooleddata analysis identifies pyloric pressures and plasma cholecystokinin concentrations as major determinants of acute energy intake in healthy, lean men. Am J Clin Nutr 2010; 92: 61-68.
79. Steinert RE, Frey F, Toepfer A, Drewe J, Beglinger C. Effects of carbohydrate sugars and artificial sweeteners on appetite and the secretion of gastrointestinal satiety peptides. Br J Nutr 2011; 105: 1320-1328.
80. Lemmens SG, Martens EA, Kester AD, Westerterp-Plantenga MS. Changes in gut hormone and glucose concentrations in relation to hunger and fullness. Am J Clin Nutr 2011; 94: 717-725.
81. Gibbons C, Caudwell P, Finlayson G, Webb DL, Hellstrom PM, Naslund E et al. Comparison of postprandial profiles of ghrelin, active GLP-1, and total PYY to meals varying in fat and carbohydrate and their association with hunger and the phases of satiety. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98: E847-E855.
82. D'Alessio D, Lu W, Sun W, Zheng S, Yang Q, Seeley R et al. Fasting and postprandial concentrations of GLP-1 in intestinal lymph and portal plasma: evidence for selective release of GLP-1 in the lymph system. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2007; 293: R2163-R2169.
83. Iritani N, Sugimoto T, Fukuda H, Komiya M, Ikeda H. Oral triacylglycerols regulate plasma glucagon-like peptide-1(7-36) and insulin levels in normal and especially in obese rats. J Nutr 1999; 129: 46-50.
84. Anini Y, Fu-Cheng X, Cuber JC, Kervran A, Chariot J, Roz C. Comparison of the postprandial release of peptide YY and proglucagon-derived peptides in the rat. Pflugers Arch 1999; 438: 299-306.
85. Yoder SM, Yang Q, Kindel TL, Tso P. Stimulation of incretin secretion by dietary lipid: is it dose dependent? Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2009; 297: G299-G305.
86. Hansen HS, Rosenkilde MM, Holst JJ, Schwartz TW. GPR119 as a fat sensor. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2012; 33: 374-381.
87. Punjabi M, Arnold M, Ruttimann E, Graber M, Geary N, Pacheco-Lopez G et al. Circulating glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) inhibits eating in male rats by acting in the hindbrain and without inducing avoidance. Endocrinology 2014; 155: 1690-1699.
88. Arnold M, Dai Y, Tso P, Langhans W. Meal-contingent intestinal lymph sampling from awake, unrestrained rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2012; 302: R1365-R1371.
89. Alvarez E, Martinez MD, Roncero I, Chowen JA, Garcia-Cuartero B, Gispert JD et al. The expression of GLP-1 receptor mRNA and protein allows the effect of GLP-1 on glucose metabolism in the human hypothalamus and brainstem. J Neurochem 2005; 92: 798-806.
90. Hansen L, Deacon CF, Orskov C, Holst JJ. Glucagon-like peptide-1-(7-36)amide is transformed to glucagon-like peptide-1-(9-36)amide by dipeptidyl peptidase IV in the capillaries supplying the L cells of the porcine intestine. Endocrinology 1999; 140: 5356-5363.
91. Plamboeck A, Veedfald S, Deacon CF, Hartmann B, Wettergren A, Svendsen LB et al. The effect of exogenous GLP-1 on food intake is lost in male truncally vagotomized subjects with pyloroplasty. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2013; 304: G1117-G1127.
92. Orskov C, Poulsen SS, Moller M, Holst JJ. Glucagon-like peptide I receptors in the subfornical organ and the area postrema are accessible to circulating glucagonlike peptide I. Diabetes 1996; 45: 832-835.