Acute Kidney Injury in Cardiac Surgery and Cardiac Intensive Care

Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia

Volumn 19, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 270-287

  Lau, Gary ^a   Wald, Ron ^b   Sladen, Robert ^c   Mazer, C David ^b  

^a GLENFIELD HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b ST MICHAEL'S HOSPITAL   (Canada)

^c New York Presbyterian Columbia University Medical Center   (United States)

Author keywords

cardiac anesthesia; cardiopulmonary bypass; coagulation; hemostasis

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIFIBRINOLYTIC AGENT; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CREATININE; CYSTATIN C; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; DOPAMINE; ERYTHROPOIETIN; FENOLDOPAM; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INTERLEUKIN 18; KIDNEY INJURY MOLECULE 1; LOOP DIURETIC AGENT; MANNITOL; NATRIURETIC FACTOR; NEUTROPHIL GELATINASE ASSOCIATED LIPOCALIN; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; SOMATOMEDIN BINDING PROTEIN; SOMATOMEDIN BINDING PROTEIN 7; TISSUE INHIBITOR OF METALLOPROTEINASE 2; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; ARTICLE; AUTOREGULATION; CARDIOPULMONARY BYPASS; COLLOID; CREATININE BLOOD LEVEL; G1 PHASE CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINT; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HEART SURGERY; HEMODILUTION; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; INTENSIVE CARE; KIDNEY PERFUSION; MESENCHYMAL STEM CELL; NONHUMAN; OFF PUMP CORONARY SURGERY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT CARE; PHASE 2 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); POSTOPERATIVE CARE; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; PROGNOSIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; REPERFUSION; RISK FACTOR; SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE SYNDROME; ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY; ADVERSE EFFECTS; INCIDENCE; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS; PROCEDURES;

ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY; BIOMARKERS; CARDIAC SURGICAL PROCEDURES; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84951023426     PISSN: 10892532     EISSN: 19405596     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1089253215593177     Document Type: Article

References (193)

1. Corwin HL, Sprague SM, DeLaria GA, Norusis MJ., Acute renal failure associated with cardiac operations. A case-control study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2003; 98: 1107-1112.
2. Mangano CM, Diamondstone LS, Ramsay JG, Aggarwal A, Herskowitz A, Mangano DT., Renal dysfunction after myocardial revascularization: risk factors, adverse outcomes, and hospital resource utilization. The Multicenter Study of Perioperative Ischemia Research Group. Ann Intern Med. 2009; 128: 194-203.
3. Cooper WA, O'Brien SM, Thourani VH, et al. Impact of renal dysfunction on outcomes of coronary artery bypass surgery: results from the Society of Thoracic Surgeons National Adult Cardiac Database. Circulation. 2006; 113: 1063-1070.
4. Thakar C, Worley S, Arrigain S, Yared JP, Paganini EP., Influence of renal dysfunction on mortality after cardiac surgery: modifying effect of preoperative renal function. Kidney Int. 2005; 67: 1112-1119.
5. Lassnigg A, Schmidlin D, Mouhieddine M, et al. Minimal changes of serum creatinine predict prognosis in patients after cardiothoracic surgery: a prospective cohort study. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004; 15: 1597-1605.
6. Shaw A, Swaminathan M, Stafford-Smith M., Cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury: putting together the pieces of the puzzle. Nephron Physiol. 2008; 109 (4): 55-60.
7. Loef BG, Henning RH, Navis G, et al. Changes in glomerular filtration rate after cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass in patients with mild preoperative renal dysfunction. Br J Anaesth. 2008; 100: 759-764.
8. Chertow GM, Levy EM, Hammermeister KE, Grover F, Daley J., Independent association between acute renal failure and mortality following cardiac surgery. Am J Med. 1998; 104: 343-348.
9. Loef BG, Epema AH, Smilde TD, et al. Immediate postoperative renal function deterioration in cardiac surgical patients predicts in-hospital mortality and long-term survival. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 16: 195-200.
10. Srivastava V, D'Silva C, Tang A, Sogliani F, Ngaage DL., The impact of major perioperative renal insult on long-term renal function and survival after cardiac surgery. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg. 2012; 15: 14-17.
11. Thakar CV, Worley S, Arrigain S, Yared J-P, Paganini EP., Improved survival in acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery. Am J Kidney Dis. 2007; 50: 703-711.
12. Bellomo R, Ronco C, Kellum JA, Mehta RL, Palevsky P., Acute renal failure: definition, outcome measures, animal models, fluid therapy and information technology needs: the Second International Consensus Conference of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit Care. 2004; 8 (4): R204-R212.
13. Mehta RL, Kellum JA, Shah SV, et al. Acute kidney injury network: report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care. 2007; 11 (2): R31.
14. Hoste EAJ, Kersten A, et al. RIFLE criteria for acute kidney injury are associated with hospital mortality in critically ill patients: a cohort analysis. Crit Care. 2006; 10 (3): R73.
15. Bagshaw SM, George C, Dinu I, Bellomo R., A multi-centre evaluation of the RIFLE criteria for early acute kidney injury in critically ill patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2007; 23: 1203-1210.
16. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Acute Kidney Injury Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for acute kidney injury. Kidney Int Suppl. 2012; 2: 1-138.
17. Mehta RL, Chertow GM., Acute renal failure definitions and classification: time for change? J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003; 14: 2178-2187.
18. Parikh CR, Mishra J, Thiessen-Philbrook H, et al. Urinary IL-18 is an early predictive biomarker of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery. Kidney Int. 2006; 70: 199-203.
19. McIlroy DR, Wagener G, Lee HT., Biomarkers of acute kidney injury: an evolving domain. Anesthesiology. 2010; 112: 998-1004.
20. Han WK, Wagener G, Zhu Y, Wang S, Lee HT., Urinary biomarkers in the early detection of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009; 4: 873-882.
21. Liang X-L, Liu S-X, Chen Y-H, et al. Combination of urinary kidney injury molecule-1 and interleukin-18 as early biomarker for the diagnosis and progressive assessment of acute kidney injury following cardiopulmonary bypass surgery: a prospective nested case-control study. Biomarkers. 2010; 15: 332-339.
22. Krawczeski CD, Goldstein SL, Woo JG, et al. Temporal relationship and predictive value of urinary acute kidney injury biomarkers after pediatric cardiopulmonary bypass. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011; 58: 2301-2309.
23. Mishra J., Identification of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin as a novel early urinary biomarker for ischemic renal injury. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2003; 14: 2534-2543.
24. Bennett M, Dent CL, Ma Q, et al. Urine NGAL predicts severity of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery: a prospective study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008; 3: 665-673.
25. Haase M, Bellomo R, Devarajan P, Schlattmann P, Haase-Fielitz A, NGAL Meta-analysis Investigator Group. Accuracy of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in diagnosis and prognosis in acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2009; 54: 1012-1024.
26. Haase M, Devarajan P, Haase-Fielitz A, et al. The outcome of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin-positive subclinical acute kidney injury. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011; 57: 1752-1761.
27. Mishra J, Dent C, Tarabishi R, et al. Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) as a biomarker for acute renal injury after cardiac surgery. Lancet. 2005; 365: 1231-1238.
28. Haase M, Bellomo R, Story D, Davenport P, Haase-Fielitz A., Urinary interleukin-18 does not predict acute kidney injury after adult cardiac surgery: a prospective observational cohort study. Crit Care. 2008; 12 (4): R96.
29. Parikh CR, Coca SG, Thiessen-Philbrook H, et al. Postoperative biomarkers predict acute kidney injury and poor outcomes after adult cardiac surgery. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011; 22: 1748-1757.
30. Han WK, Bailly V, Abichandani R, Thadhani R, Bonventre JV., Kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1): a novel biomarker for human renal proximal tubule injury. Kidney Int. 2002; 62: 237-244.
31. Liangos O, Tighiouart H, Perianayagam MC, et al. Comparative analysis of urinary biomarkers for early detection of acute kidney injury following cardiopulmonary bypass. Biomarkers. 2009; 14: 423-431.
32. Huang Y, Don-Wauchope AC., The clinical utility of kidney injury molecule 1 in the prediction, diagnosis and prognosis of acute kidney injury: a systematic review. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets. 2012; 10: 260-271.
33. Dharnidharka VR, Kwon C, Stevens G., Serum cystatin C is superior to serum creatinine as a marker of kidney function: a meta-analysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002; 40: 221-226.
34. Bagshaw SM, Bellomo R., Cystatin C in acute kidney injury. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2010; 16: 533-539.
35. Daniel JP, Chantrel F, Offner M, Moulin B, Hannedouche T., Comparison of Cystatin C, Creatinine and Creatinine Clearance vs. GFR for detection of renal failure in renal transplant patients. Ren Fail. 2004; 26: 253-257.
36. Heise D, Waeschle RM, Schlobohm J, Wessels J, Quintel M., Utility of cystatin C for assessment of renal function after cardiac surgery. Nephron Clin Pract. 2009; 112: c107-c114.
37. Shlipak MG, Coca SG, Wang Z, et al. TRIBE-AKI Consortium. Presurgical serum cystatin C and risk of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery. Am J Kidney Dis. 2011; 58: 366-373.
38. Zappitelli M, Krawczeski CD, Devarajan P, et al. Early postoperative serum cystatin C predicts severe acute kidney injury following pediatric cardiac surgery. Kidney Int. 2011; 80: 655-662.
39. Koyner JL, Bennett MR, Worcester EM, et al. Urinary cystatin C as an early biomarker of acute kidney injury following adult cardiothoracic surgery. Kidney Int. 2008; 74: 1059-1069.
40. Kashani K, Al-Khafaji A, Ardiles T, et al. Discovery and validation of cell cycle arrest biomarkers in human acute kidney injury. Crit Care. 2013; 17 (1): R25.
41. Meersch M, Schmidt C, Van Aken H, et al. Urinary TIMP-2 and IGFBP7 as early biomarkers of acute kidney injury and renal recovery following cardiac surgery. PLoS One. 2014; 9 (3): e93460.
42. Bihorac A, Chawla LS, Shaw AD, et al. Validation of cell-cycle arrest biomarkers for acute kidney injury using clinical adjudication. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2014; 189: 932-939.
43. Zanardo G, Michielon P, Paccagnella A, et al. Acute renal failure in the patient undergoing cardiac operation. Prevalence, mortality rate, and main risk factors. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1994; 107: 1489-1495.
44. Chertow GM, Lazarus JM, Christiansen CL, et al. Preoperative renal risk stratification. Circulation. 2012; 95: 878-884.
45. Frost L, Pedersen RS, Lund O, Hansen OK, Hansen HE., Prognosis and risk factors in acute, dialysis-requiring renal failure after open-heart surgery. Scand J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2007; 25: 161-166.
46. Thakar CV., A clinical score to predict acute renal failure after cardiac surgery. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2004; 16: 162-168.
47. Karkouti K, Wijeysundera DN, Yau TM, et al. Acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery: focus on modifiable risk factors. Circulation. 2009; 119: 495-502.
48. Parolari A, Pesce LL, Pacini D, et al. Risk factors for perioperative acute kidney injury after adult cardiac surgery: role of perioperative management. Ann Thorac Surg. 2012; 93: 584-591.
49. Aronson S, Fontes ML, Miao Y, Mangano DT, for the Investigators of the Multicenter Study of Perioperative Ischemia Research Group and the Ischemia Research and Education Foundation. Risk index for perioperative renal dysfunction/failure: critical dependence on pulse pressure hypertension. Circulation. 2007; 115: 733-742.
50. Wijeysundera DN, Karkouti K, Dupuis J-Y, et al. Derivation and validation of a simplified predictive index for renal replacement therapy after cardiac surgery. JAMA. 2007; 297: 1801-1809.
51. Stafford-Smith M., Evidence-based renal protection in cardiac surgery. Semin Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2005; 9: 65-76.
52. Redfors B, Bragadottir G, Sellgren J, Swärd K, Ricksten S-E., Acute renal failure is NOT an "acute renal success"-a clinical study on the renal oxygen supply/demand relationship in acute kidney injury. Crit Care Med. 2010; 38: 1695-1701.
53. Goligorsky MS, Noiri E, Tsukahara H, Budzikowski AS, Li H., A pivotal role of nitric oxide in endothelial cell dysfunction. Acta Physiol Scand. 2000; 168: 33-40.
54. Caramelo C, Espinosa G, Manzarbeitia F, et al. Role of endothelium-related mechanisms in the pathophysiology of renal ischemia/reperfusion in normal rabbits. Circ Res. 1996; 79: 1031-1038.
55. Andersson LG, Bratteby LE, Ekroth R, et al. Renal function during cardiopulmonary bypass: influence of pump flow and systemic blood pressure. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2003; 8: 597-602.
56. Kelleher SP, Robinette JB, Conger JD., Sympathetic nervous system in the loss of autoregulation in acute renal failure. Am J Physiol. 2003; 246 (4 pt 2): F379-F386.
57. Hornick P, Taylor K., Pulsatile and nonpulsatile perfusion: the continuing controversy. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 1997; 11: 310-315.
58. Czerny M, Baumer H, Kilo J, et al. Inflammatory response and myocardial injury following coronary artery bypass grafting with or without cardiopulmonary bypass. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2000; 17: 737-742.
59. Asimakopoulos G, Taylor KM., Effects of cardiopulmonary bypass on leukocyte and endothelial adhesion molecules. Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 66: 2135-2144.
60. Paparella D, Yau TM, Young E., Cardiopulmonary bypass induced inflammation: pathophysiology and treatment. An update. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2002; 21: 232-244.
61. Burne-Taney MJ, Rabb H., The role of adhesion molecules and T cells in ischemic renal injury. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2003; 12: 85-90.
62. Sheridan AM, Bonventre JV., Cell biology and molecular mechanisms of injury in ischemic acute renal failure. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2000; 9: 427-434.
63. Tennenberg SD, Clardy CW, Bailey WW, Solomkin JS., Complement activation and lung permeability during cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg. 1990; 50: 597-601.
64. Jansen NJ, van Oeveren W, Gu YJ, van Vliet MH, Eijsman L, Wildevuur CR., Endotoxin release and tumor necrosis factor formation during cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg. 1992; 54: 744-747.
65. Moat NE, Evans TE, Quinlan GJ, Gutteridge JM., Chelatable iron and copper can be released from extracorporeally circulated blood during cardiopulmonary bypass. FEBS Lett. 2001; 328: 103-106.
66. Gutteridge JM., Iron promoters of the Fenton reaction and lipid peroxidation can be released from haemoglobin by peroxides. FEBS Lett. 2001; 201: 291-295.
67. Gutteridge JM, Quinlan GJ., Antioxidant protection against organic and inorganic oxygen radicals by normal human plasma: the important primary role for iron-binding and iron-oxidising proteins. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1993; 1156: 144-150.
68. Flaherty JT, Weisfeldt ML., Reperfusion injury. Free Radic Biol Med. 1988; 5: 409-419.
69. Wan L, Bagshaw SM, Langenberg C, Saotome T, May C, Bellomo R., Pathophysiology of septic acute kidney injury: what do we really know? Crit Care Med. 2008; 36 (suppl): S198-S203.
70. Blauth CI., Macroemboli and microemboli during cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg. 1995; 59: 1300-1303.
71. Barbut D, Hinton RB, Szatrowski TP, et al. Cerebral emboli detected during bypass surgery are associated with clamp removal. Stroke. 1994; 25: 2398-2402.
72. Sreeram GM, Grocott HP, White WD, Newman MF, Stafford-Smith M., Transcranial Doppler emboli count predicts rise in creatinine after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2004; 18: 548-551.
73. Hilker M, Arlt M, Keyser A, et al. Minimizing the risk of perioperative stroke by clampless off-pump bypass surgery: a retrospective observational analysis. J Cardiothorac Surg. 2010; 5 (1): 14.
74. Rosner MH., Acute kidney injury associated with cardiac surgery. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 1: 19-32.
75. Karkouti K, Beattie WS, Wijeysundera DN, et al. Hemodilution during cardiopulmonary bypass is an independent risk factor for acute renal failure in adult cardiac surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2005; 129: 391-400.
76. Stafford-Smith M, Newman MF., What effects do hemodilution and blood transfusion during cardiopulmonary bypass have on renal outcomes? Nat Clin Pract Nephrol. 2006; 2: 188-189.
77. Ferraris VA, Ferraris SP, Saha SP, et al. Perioperative blood transfusion and blood conservation in cardiac surgery: the society of thoracic surgeons and the society of cardiovascular anesthesiologists clinical practice guideline. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007; 83 (5): S27-S86.
78. Wijeysundera DN, Karkouti K, Beattie WS, Rao V, Ivanov J., Improving the identification of patients at risk of postoperative renal failure after cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology. 2005; 104: 65-72.
79. Schwann NM, Horrow JC, Strong MD 3rd, Chamchad D, Guerraty A, Wechsler AS., Does off-pump coronary artery bypass reduce the incidence of clinically evident renal dysfunction after multivessel myocardial revascularization? Anesth Analg. 2004; 99: 959-964.
80. Gamoso MG, Phillips-Bute B, Landolfo KP, Newman MF, Stafford-Smith M., Off-pump versus on-pump coronary artery bypass surgery and postoperative renal dysfunction. Anesth Analg. 2000; 91: 1080-1084.
81. Beauford RB, Saunders CR, Niemeier LA, et al. Is off-pump revascularization better for patients with non-dialysis-dependent renal insufficiency? Heart Surg Forum. 2004; 7 (2): E141-E146.
82. Hix JK, Thakar CV, Katz EM, Yared J-P, Sabik J, Paganini EP., Effect of off-pump coronary artery bypass graft surgery on postoperative acute kidney injury and mortality. Crit Care Med. 2006; 34: 2979-2983.
83. Massoudy P, Wagner S, Thielmann M, et al. Coronary artery bypass surgery and acute kidney injury-impact of the off-pump technique. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008; 23: 2853-2860.
84. Nigwekar SU, Kandula P, Hix JK, Thakar CV., Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery and acute kidney injury: a meta-analysis of randomized and observational studies. Am J Kidney Dis. 2009; 54: 413-423.
85. Kuss O, von Salviati B, Börgermann J., Off-pump versus on-pump coronary artery bypass grafting: a systematic review and meta-analysis of propensity score analyses. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2010; 140: 829-835.e13.
86. Shroyer AL, Grover FL, Hattler B, et al. On-pump versus off-pump coronary-artery bypass surgery. N Engl J Med. 2009; 361: 1827-1837.
87. Lamy A, Devereaux PJ, Prabhakaran D, et al. Off-pump or on-pump coronary-artery bypass grafting at 30 days. N Engl J Med. 2012; 366: 1489-1497.
88. Dybdahl B, Wahba A, Haaverstad R, et al. On-pump versus off-pump coronary artery bypass grafting: more heat-shock protein 70 is released after on-pump surgery. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2004; 25: 985-992.
89. Stallwood MI, Grayson AD, Mills K, Scawn ND., Acute renal failure in coronary artery bypass surgery: independent effect of cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg. 2004; 77: 968-972.
90. Chawla LS, Zhao Y, Lough FC, Schroeder E, Seneff MG, Brennan JM., Off-pump versus on-pump coronary artery bypass grafting outcomes stratified by preoperative renal function. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012; 23: 1389-1397.
91. Solomon R, Werner C, Mann D, D'Elia J, Silva P., Effects of saline, mannitol, and furosemide to prevent acute decreases in renal function induced by radiocontrast agents. N Engl J Med. 1994; 331: 1416-1420.
92. Albanèse J, Leone M, Garnier F, Bourgoin A, Antonini F, Martin C., Renal effects of norepinephrine in septic and nonseptic patients. Chest. 2004; 126: 534-539.
93. Zacharias M, Mugawar M, Herbison GP, et al. Interventions for protecting renal function in the perioperative period. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013; 9: CD003590.
94. Drenger B, Fontes ML, Miao Y, et al. Patterns of use of perioperative angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in coronary artery bypass graft surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass: effects on in-hospital morbidity and mortality. Circulation. 2012; 126: 261-269.
95. Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): reminder on renal failure and impairment. https://www.gov.uk/drug-safety-update/non-steroidal-anti-inflammatory-drugs-nsaids-reminder-on-renal-failure-and-impairment. 2009. Accessed June 10, 2015.
96. Schortgen F, Brochard L., Colloid-induced kidney injury: experimental evidence may help to understand mechanisms. Crit Care. 2009; 13 (2): 130.
97. Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F, et al. Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2008; 358: 125-139.
98. Perner A, Haase N, Guttormsen AB, et al. Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.42 versus Ringer's acetate in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2012; 367: 124-134.
99. Myburgh JA, Finfer S, Bellomo R, et al. Hydroxyethyl starch or saline for fluid resuscitation in intensive care. N Engl J Med. 2012; 367: 1901-1911.
100. US Department of Health and Human Services. FDA safety communication: boxed warning on increased mortality and severe renal injury, and additional warning on risk of bleeding, for use of hydroxyethyl starch solutions in some settings. http://www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/SafetyAvailability/ucm358271.htm. Revised 25, 2013. Updated. 18, 2015. Accessed June 10, 2015.
101. Health Canada. Summary safety review-hydroxethyl starch solutions-risk of kidney injusry and death. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/dhp-mps/medeff/reviews-examens/hes-hea-eng.php. 3, 2014. Accessed January 31, 2015.
102. European Medicines Agency. PRAC confirms that hydroxyethyl-starch solutions (HES) should no longer be used in patients with sepsis or burn injuries or in critically ill patients. http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/news-and-events/news/2013/10/news-detail-001917.jspmid=WC0b01ac058004d5c1. Published 10, 2013. Accessed January 31, 2015.
103. Effect of hydroxyethylstarch 6% 130/0.4 administration on renal function after cardiac surgery. Clinicaltrials.gov. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02306213?term=hes+cardiac+surgery&rank=8. Accessed January 31, 2015.
104. Starch or saline after cardiac surgery. Clinicaltrials.gov. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00964015?term=acute+kidney+injury+cardiac+surgery+hes&rank=3. Accessed January 31, 2015.
105. Despotis GJ, Gravlee G, Filos K, Levy J., Anticoagulation monitoring during cardiac surgery: a review of current and emerging techniques. Anesthesiology. 1999; 91: 1122-1151.
106. Mannucci PM, Levi M., Prevention and treatment of major blood loss. N Engl J Med. 2007; 356: 2301-2311.
107. Mogensen CE, Sølling. Studies on renal tubular protein reabsorption: partial and near complete inhibition by certain amino acids. Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 2012; 37: 477-486.
108. Stafford-Smith M, Phillips-Bute B, Reddan DN, Black J, Newman MF., The association of ε-aminocaproic acid with postoperative decrease in creatinine clearance in 1502 coronary bypass patients. Anesth Analg. 2000; 91: 1085-1090.
109. Kramer HJ, Moch T, Sicherer von L, Düsing R., Effects of aprotinin on renal function and urinary prostaglandin excretion in conscious rats after acute salt loading. Clin Sci. 1979; 56: 547-553.
110. Seto S, Kher V, Scicli AG, Beierwaltes WH, Carretero OA., The effect of aprotinin (a serine protease inhibitor) on renal function and renin release. Hypertension. 2005; 5: 893-899.
111. Shaw AD, Stafford-Smith M, White WD, et al. The effect of aprotinin on outcome after coronary-artery bypass grafting. N Engl J Med. 2008; 358: 784-793.
112. Kellum JA, M Decker J., Use of dopamine in acute renal failure: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2001; 29: 1526-1531.
113. Schneeweiss S, Seeger JD, Landon J, Walker AM., Aprotinin during coronary-artery bypass grafting and risk of death. N Engl J Med. 2008; 358: 771-783.
114. Mangano DT, Tudor IC, Dietzel C., The risk associated with aprotinin in cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354: 353-365.
115. Mangano DT, Miao Y, Vuylsteke A, et al. Mortality associated with aprotinin during 5 years following coronary artery bypass graft surgery. JAMA. 2007; 297: 471-479.
116. Friedrich JO, Adhikari N, Herridge MS, Beyene J., Meta-analysis: low-dose dopamine increases urine output but does not prevent renal dysfunction or death. Ann Intern Med. 2005; 142: 510-524.
117. Brown JR, Birkmeyer NJO, O'Connor GT., Meta-analysis comparing the effectiveness and adverse outcomes of antifibrinolytic agents in cardiac surgery. Circulation. 2007; 115: 2801-2813.
118. Bove T, Landoni G, Calabrò MG, et al. Renoprotective action of fenoldopam in high-risk patients undergoing cardiac surgery: a prospective, double-blind, randomized clinical trial. Circulation. 2005; 111: 3230-3235.
119. Fergusson DA, Hébert PC, Mazer CD, et al. A comparison of aprotinin and lysine analogues in high-risk cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med. 2008; 358: 2319-2331.
120. Stone GW, McCullough PA, Tumlin JA, et al. Fenoldopam mesylate for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2003; 290: 2284-2291.
121. Ng MK, Tremmel J, Fitzgerald PJ, Fearon WF., Selective renal arterial infusion of fenoldopam for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy. J Interv Cardiol. 2006; 19: 75-79.
122. Caimmi P-P, Pagani L, Micalizzi E, et al. Fenoldopam for renal protection in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2003; 17: 491-494.
123. Murphy MB, Murray C, Shorten GD., Fenoldopam: a selective peripheral dopamine-receptor agonist for the treatment of severe hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2001; 345: 1548-1557.
124. Tumlin JA, Finkel KW, Murray PT, Samuels J, Cotsonis G, Shaw AD., Fenoldopam mesylate in early acute tubular necrosis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am J Kidney Dis. 2005; 46: 26-34.
125. Landoni G, Biondi-Zoccai GGL, Marino G, et al. Fenoldopam reduces the need for renal replacement therapy and in-hospital death in cardiovascular surgery: a meta-analysis. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2008; 22: 27-33.
126. Brezis M, Agmon Y, Epstein FH,. Determinants of intrarenal oxygenation. I. Effects of diuretics. Am J Physiol. 1994; 267 (6 pt 2): F1059-F1062.
127. Lindner A, Cutler RE, Goodman G., Synergism of dopamine plus furosemide in preventing acute renal failure in the dog. Kidney Int. 1979; 16: 158-166.
128. Heyman SN, Rosen S, Epstein FH, Spokes K, Brezis ML., Loop diuretics reduce hypoxic damage to proximal tubules of the isolated perfused rat kidney. Kidney Int. 1994; 45: 981-985.
129. van der Voort PHJ, Boerma EC, Koopmans M, et al. Furosemide does not improve renal recovery after hemofiltration for acute renal failure in critically ill patients: a double blind randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 2009; 37: 533-538.
130. Bove T, Zangrillo A, Guarracino F, et al. Effect of fenoldopam on use of renal replacement therapy among patients with acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery. JAMA. 2014; 312: 2244-2253.
131. Bagshaw SM, Delaney A, Haase M, Ghali WA, Bellomo R., Loop diuretics in the management of acute renal failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Resusc. 2007; 9: 60-68.
132. Fisher AR, Jones P, Barlow P, et al. The influence of mannitol on renal function during and after open-heart surgery. Perfusion. 1998; 13: 181-186.
133. Nishimura O, Tokutsu S, Sakurai T, et al. Effects of hypertonic mannitol on renal function in open heart surgery. Jpn Heart J. 2008; 24: 245-257.
134. Ip-Yam PC, Murphy S, Baines M, Fox MA, Desmond MJ, Innes PA., Renal function and proteinuria after cardiopulmonary bypass: the effects of temperature and mannitol. Anesth Analg. 2006; 78: 842-847.
135. Carcoana OV, Mathew JP, Davis E, et al. Mannitol and dopamine in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass: a randomized clinical trial. Anesth Analg. 2003; 97: 1222-1229.
136. Visweswaran P, Massin EK, Dubose TD., Mannitol-induced acute renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 8: 1028-1033.
137. Rahman SN, Kim GE, Mathew AS, et al. Effects of atrial natriuretic peptide in clinical acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 2007; 45: 1731-1738.
138. Allgren RL, Marbury TC, Rahman SN, et al. Anaritide in acute tubular necrosis. Auriculin Anaritide Acute Renal Failure Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1997; 336: 828-834.
139. Lewis J, Salem MM, Chertow GM, et al. Atrial natriuretic factor in oliguric acute renal failure. Anaritide Acute Renal Failure Study Group. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000; 36: 767-774.
140. Swärd K, Valsson F, Odencrants P, Samuelsson O, Ricksten S-E., Recombinant human atrial natriuretic peptide in ischemic acute renal failure: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 2004; 32: 1310-1315.
141. Mentzer RM, Oz MC, Sladen RN, et al. Effects of perioperative nesiritide in patients with left ventricular dysfunction undergoing cardiac surgery: the NAPA trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007; 49: 716-726.
142. Bergman A, Odar-Cederlöf I, Westman L, Öhqvist G., Effects of human atrial natriuretic peptide in patients after coronary artery bypass surgery. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 1996; 10: 490-496.
143. Nigwekar SU, Navaneethan SD, Parikh CR, Hix JK., Atrial natriuretic peptide for management of acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009; 4: 261-272.
144. Patel NN, Rogers CA, Angelini GD, Murphy GJ., Pharmacological therapies for the prevention of acute kidney injury following cardiac surgery: a systematic review. Heart Fail Rev. 2011; 16: 553-567.
145. Sackner-Bernstein JD, Kowalski M, Fox M, Aaronson K., Short-term risk of death after treatment with nesiritide for decompensated heart failure: a pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2005; 293: 1900-1905.
146. Nigwekar SU, Hix JK., The role of natriuretic peptide administration in cardiovascular surgery-associated renal dysfunction: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2009; 23: 151-160.
147. Briguori C, Colombo A, Violante A, et al. Standard vs double dose of N -acetylcysteine to prevent contrast agent associated nephrotoxicity. Eur Heart J. 2004; 25: 206-211.
148. Marenzi G, Assanelli E, Marana I, et al. N -acetylcysteine and contrast-induced nephropathy in primary angioplasty. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354: 2773-2782.
149. Haase M, Haase-Fielitz A, Bagshaw SM, et al. Phase II, randomized, controlled trial of high-dose N -acetylcysteine in high-risk cardiac surgery patients. Crit Care Med. 2007; 35: 1324-1331.
150. Wijeysundera DN, Beattie WS, Rao V, Granton JT, Chan CT., N -acetylcysteine for preventing acute kidney injury in cardiac surgery patients with pre-existing moderate renal insufficiency. Can J Anaesth. 2007; 54: 872-881.
151. Naughton F, Wijeysundera D, Karkouti K, Tait G, Beattie WS., N -acetylcysteine to reduce renal failure after cardiac surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Can J Anaesth. 2008; 55: 827-835.
152. Adabag AS, Ishani A, Bloomfield HE, Ngo AK, Wilt TJ., Efficacy of N -acetylcysteine in preventing renal injury after heart surgery: a systematic review of randomized trials. Eur Heart J. 2009; 30: 1910-1917.
153. Van Den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2001; 345: 1359-1367.
154. Van den Berghe G, Wilmer A, Hermans G, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354: 449-461.
155. RENAL Replacement Therapy Study Investigators, Bellomo R, Cass A, et al.Intensity of continuous renal-replacement therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009; 361: 1627-1638.
156. Wiener RS, Wiener DC, Larson RJ., Benefits and risks of tight glucose control in critically ill adults: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008; 300: 933-944.
157. Griesdale DEG, de Souza RJ, van Dam RM, et al. Intensive insulin therapy and mortality among critically ill patients: a meta-analysis including NICE-SUGAR study data. CMAJ. 2009; 180: 821-827.
158. Halliwell B, Gutteridge JM., The importance of free radicals and catalytic metal ions in human diseases. Mol Aspects Med. 2002; 8: 89-193.
159. Caulfield JL, Singh SP, Wishnok JS, Deen WM, Tannenbaum SR., Bicarbonate inhibits N -nitrosation in oxygenated nitric oxide solutions. J Biol Chem. 1996; 271: 25859-25863.
160. Zager RA, Gamelin LM., Pathogenetic mechanisms in experimental hemoglobinuric acute renal failure. Am J Physiol. 2002; 256 (3 Pt 2): F446-F455.
161. Morita Y, Ikeguchi H, Nakamura J, Hotta N, Yuzawa Y, Matsuo S., Complement activation products in the urine from proteinuric patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2000; 11: 700-707.
162. Briguori C, Airoldi F, D'Andrea D, et al. Renal Insufficiency Following Contrast Media Administration Trial (REMEDIAL): a randomized comparison of 3 preventive strategies. Circulation. 2007; 115: 1211-1217.
163. Merten GJ, Burgess WP, Gray LV, et al. Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy with sodium bicarbonate: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004; 291: 2328-2334.
164. Haase M, Haase-Fielitz A, Bellomo R, et al. Sodium bicarbonate to prevent increases in serum creatinine after cardiac surgery: a pilot double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 2009; 37: 39-47.
165. Heringlake M, Heinze H, Schubert M, et al. A perioperative infusion of sodium bicarbonate does not improve renal function in cardiac surgery patients: a prospective observational cohort study. Crit Care. 2012; 16 (4): R156.
166. Chatterjee PK., Pleiotropic renal actions of erythropoietin. Lancet. 2005; 365: 1890-1892.
167. Song YR, Lee T, You SJ, et al. Prevention of acute kidney injury by erythropoietin in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting: a pilot study. Am J Nephrol. 2009; 30: 253-260.
168. Endre ZH, Walker RJ, Pickering JW, et al. Early intervention with erythropoietin does not affect the outcome of acute kidney injury (the EARLYARF trial). Kidney Int. 2010; 77: 1020-1030.
169. Tasanarong A., Efficacy of erythropoietin to prevent acute kidney injury in chronic kidney disease patients undergoing cardiac surgery. Clinicaltrials.gov. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01066351. 2012. Accessed November 10, 2012.
170. Prowle JR, Calzavacca P, Licara E, et al. Pilot double-blind, randomized controlled trial of short-term atorvastatin for prevention of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery. Nephrology (Carlton). 2012; 17: 215-224.
171. Tie H-T, Luo M-Z, Luo M-J, Zhang M, Wu Q-C, Wan J-Y., Sodium bicarbonate in the prevention of cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2014; 18: 517.
172. Choi YS, Shim JK, Kim JC, Kang KS, Seo YH, Ahn KR, Kwak YL., Effect of remote ischemic preconditioning on renal dysfunction after complex valvular heart surgery: a randomized controlled trial. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2011; 142: 148-154.
173. Zimmerman RF, Ezeanuna PU, Kane JC, Cleland CD, Kempananjappa TJ, Lucas FL, Kramer RS, et al. Ischemic preconditioning at a remote site prevents acute kidney injury in patients following cardiac surgery. Kidney Int. 2011; 80: 861-867.
174. Gallagher SM, Jones DA, Kapur A, Wragg A, Harwood SM, Mathur R, Archbold RA, Uppal R, Yaqoob MM., Remote ischemic preconditioning has a neutral effect on the incidence of kidney injury after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. Kidney Int. 2015; 87: 473-481.
175. Candilio L, Malik A, Ariti C, Barnard M, Di Salvo C, Lawrence D, Hayward M, Yap J, Roberts N, Sheikh A, Kolvekar S, Hausenloy DJ, Yellon DM., Effect of remote ischaemic preconditioning on clinical outcomes in patients undergoing cardiac bypass surgery: a randomised controlled clinical trial. Heart. 2015; 101: 185-92.
176. Zarbock A, Schmidt C, Van Aken H, Wempe C, Martens S, Zahn PK, Wolf B, Goebel U, Schwer CI, Rosenberger P, Haeberle H, Görlich D, Kellum JA, Meersch M, RenalRIPC Investigators. Effect of remote ischemic preconditioning on kidney injury among high-risk patients undergoing cardiac surgery: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2015; 313: 2133-41.
177. Billings FT., Short-term atorvastatin's effect on acute kidney injury following cardiac surgery. Clinicaltrials.gov. http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00791648. 2012. Accessed November 10, 2012.
178. Togel F., Administered mesenchymal stem cells protect against ischemic acute renal failure through differentiation-independent mechanisms. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2005; 289: F31-F42.
179. Gould SE, Day M, Jones SS, Dorai H., BMP-7 regulates chemokine, cytokine, and hemodynamic gene expression in proximal tubule cells. Kidney Int. 2002; 61: 51-60.
180. Uchino S, Kellum JA, Bellomo R, et al. Acute renal failure in critically ill patients. JAMA. 2005; 294: 813-818.
181. Claure-Del Granado R, Mehta RL,. Assessing and delivering dialysis dose in acute kidney injury. Semin Dial. 2011; 24: 157-163.
182. Ronco C, Bellomo R, Homel P, et al. Effects of different doses in continuous veno-venous haemofiltration on outcomes of acute renal failure: a prospective randomised trial. Lancet. 2000; 356: 26-30.
183. Saudan P, Niederberger M, De Seigneux S, et al. Adding a dialysis dose to continuous hemofiltration increases survival in patients with acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 2006; 70: 1312-1317.
184. Vesconi S, Cruz DN, Fumagalli R, et al. Delivered dose of renal replacement therapy and mortality in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. Crit Care. 2009; 13 (2): R57.
185. Durmaz I Büket S, Atay Y, et al. Cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass in patients with chronic renal failure. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1999; 118: 306-315.
186. Marenzi G, Marana I, Lauri G, et al. The prevention of radiocontrast-agent-induced nephropathy by hemofiltration. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349: 1333-1340.
187. Durmaz I, Yagdi T, Calkavur T, et al. Prophylactic dialysis in patients with renal dysfunction undergoing on-pump coronary artery bypass surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003; 75: 859-864.
188. Tassani P, Richter JA, Eising GP, et al. Influence of combined zero-balanced and modified ultrafiltration on the systemic inflammatory response during coronary artery bypass grafting. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 1999; 13: 285-291.
189. Grünenfelder J, Zünd G, Schoeberlein A, et al. Modified ultrafiltration lowers adhesion molecule and cytokine levels after cardiopulmonary bypass without clinical relevance in adults. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2000; 17: 77-83.
190. Musleh GS, Datta SS, Yonan NN, et al. Association of IL6 and IL10 with renal dysfunction and the use of haemofiltration during cardiopulmonary bypass. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2009; 35: 511-514.
191. Matata B, Mediratta N, Morgan M, et al. The impact of continuous haemofiltration with high-volume fluid exchange during cardiopulmonary bypass surgery on the recovery of patients with impaired renal function: a pilot randomised trial. Health Technol Assess. 2013; 17 (49): i-xiv, 1-84.
192. Karvellas CJ, Farhat MR, Sajjad I, et al. A comparison of early versus late initiation of renal replacement therapy in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2011; 15 (1): R72.
193. Bagshaw SM, Wald R, Barton J, et al. Clinical factors associated with initiation of renal replacement therapy in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury-a prospective multicenter observational study. J Crit Care. 2012; 27: 268-275.