Recent progress towards novel EV71 anti-therapeutics and vaccines

Viruses

Volumn 7, Issue 12, 2015, Pages 6441-6457

  Ng, Qingyong ^a   He, Fang ^a,b   Kwang, Jimmy ^a  

^a NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE   (Singapore)

^b ZHEJIANG UNIVERSITY   (China)

Author keywords

Anti therapeutics; Baculovirus; Enterovirus 71; Human intravenous immunoglobulin; Inactivated vaccines; Monoclonal antibodies; Vaccines

Indexed keywords

IMMUNOGLOBULIN; VACCINE; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; INACTIVATED VACCINE; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; SUBUNIT VACCINE; VIRUS ANTIBODY; VIRUS VACCINE;

ANTIBODY RESPONSE; APPARENT LIFE THREATENING EVENT; BACULOVIRIDAE; CYTOTOXICITY; DOWNSTREAM PROCESSING; DRUG FORMULATION; ENCEPHALITIS; ENTEROVIRUS 71; GENE INSERTION SEQUENCE; GENOTYPE; HAND FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE; HUMAN; IMMUNOGENICITY; NONHUMAN; PHARMACY AND THERAPEUTICS COMMITTEE; REVIEW; SERODIAGNOSIS; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION; DRUG DEVELOPMENT; DRUG EFFECTS; ENTEROVIRUS A; HAND, FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE; IMMUNOLOGY; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; PROCEDURES; TRENDS;

ANTIBODIES, MONOCLONAL; ANTIBODIES, VIRAL; ANTIVIRAL AGENTS; DRUG DISCOVERY; ENTEROVIRUS A, HUMAN; HAND, FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE; HUMANS; IMMUNOGLOBULINS, INTRAVENOUS; VACCINES, INACTIVATED; VACCINES, SUBUNIT; VIRAL VACCINES;

EID: 84949513705     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19994915     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/v7122949     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Ranganathan, S.; Singh, S.; Poh, C.L.; Chow, V.T. The hand, foot and mouth disease virus capsid: Sequence analysis and prediction of antigenic sites from homology modelling. Appl. Bioinform. 2002, 1, 43-52. [PubMed]
2. Plevka, P.; Perera, R.; Cardosa, J.; Kuhn, R.J.; Rossmann, M.G.; Rossmann, M.G. Crystal structure of human enterovirus 71. Science 2012, 336. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
3. Wang, X.; Peng, W.; Ren, J.; Hu, Z.; Xu, J.; Lou, Z.; Li, X.; Yin, W.; Shen, X.; Porta, C.; et al. A sensor-adaptor mechanism for enterovirus uncoating from structures of EV71. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2012, 19, 424-429. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
4. Huang, S.-W.; Cheng, H.-L.; Hsieh, H.-Y.; Chang, C.-L.; Tsai, H.-P.; Kuo, P.-H.; Wang, S.-M.; Liu, C.-C.; Su, I.-J.; Wang, J.-R. Mutations in the non-structural protein region contribute to intra-genotypic evolution of Enterovirus 71. J. Biomed. Sci. 2014, 21. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
5. Tee, K.K.; Lam, T.T.-Y.; Chan, Y.F.; Bible, J.M.; Kamarulzaman, A.; Tong, C.Y.W.; Takebe, Y.; Pybus, O.G. Evolutionary genetics of human enterovirus 71: Origin, population dynamics, natural selection, and seasonal periodicity of the VP1 gene. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 3339-3350. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
6. Ho, M.; Chen, E.R.; Hsu, K.H.; Twu, S.J.; Chen, K.T.; Tsai, S.F.; Wang, J.R.; Shih, S.R. An epidemic of Enterovirus 71 infection in taiwan. Taiwan enterovirus epidemic working group. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999, 341, 929-935. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Schmidt, N.J.; Lennette, E.H.; Ho, H.H. An apparently new enterovirus isolated from patients with disease of the central nervous system. J. Infect. Dis. 1974, 129, 304-309. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
8. Shekhar, K.; Lye, M.S.; Norlijah, O.; Ong, F.; Looi, L.M.; Khuzaiah, R.; Marzuki, I.; Hussein, I.;Wong, S.L.; Mohan, J.; et al. Deaths in children during an outbreak of hand, foot and mouth disease in peninsular malaysia-Clinical and pathological characteristics. Med. J. Malays. 2005, 60, 297-304. [PubMed]
9. Liu, C.C.; Tseng, H.W.; Wang, S.M.; Wang, J.R.; Su, I.J. An outbreak of Enterovirus 71 infection in taiwan, 1998: Epidemiologic and clinical manifestations. J. Clin. Virol. 2000, 17, 23-30. [CrossRef]
10. Huang, S.W.; Hsu, Y.W.; Smith, D.J.; Kiang, D.; Tsai, H.-P.; Lin, K.-H.; Wang, S.-M.; Liu, C.-C.; Su, I.-J.; Wang, J.R. Reemergence of Enterovirus 71 in 2008 in Taiwan: Dynamics of genetic and antigenic evolution from 1998 to 2008. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2009, 47, 3653-3662. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
11. Ang, L.W.; Koh, B.K.; Chan, K.P.; Chua, L.T.; James, L.; Goh, K.T. Epidemiology and control of hand, foot and mouth disease in Singapore, 2001-2007. Ann. Acad. Med. Singap. 2009, 38, 106-112. [PubMed]
12. Emerging Disease Surveillance and Response. Available online: http://www.wpro.who.int/ emerging_diseases/en/ (accessed on 1 September 2015).
13. Fenner, F.; Henderson, D.A.; Arita, I.; Jezek, Z.; Ladnyi, I.D. Smallpox and Its Eradication; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 1988.
14. Riedel, S. Edward jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination. Proc. Baylor Univ. Med. Cent. 2005, 18, 21-25.
15. Liang, Z.-L.; Mao, Q.-Y.; Wang, Y.-P.; Zhu, F.-C.; Li, J.-X.; Yao, X.; Gao, F.; Wu, X.; Xu, M.; Wang, J.-Z. Progress on the research and development of inactivated EV71 whole-virus vaccines. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 2013, 9, 1701-1705. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. Liang, Z.;Wang, J. EV71 vaccine, an invaluable gift for children. Clin. Trans. Immunol. 2014, 3. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. Zhu, F.-C.; Meng, F.-Y.; Li, J.-X.; Li, X.-L.; Mao, Q.-Y.; Tao, H.; Zhang, Y.-T.; Yao, X.; Chu, K.; Chen, Q.-H.; et al. Efficacy, safety, and immunology of an inactivated alum-adjuvant Enterovirus 71 vaccine in children in China: A multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2013, 381, 2024-2032. [CrossRef]
18. Li, R.; Liu, L.; Mo, Z.; Wang, X.; Xia, J.; Liang, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Li, Y.; Mao, Q.; Wang, J.; et al. An inactivated Enterovirus 71 vaccine in healthy children. N. Engl. J. Med. 2014, 370, 829-837. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
19. Zhu, F.; Xu,W.; Xia, J.; Liang, Z.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, X.; Tan, X.;Wang, L.; Mao, Q.;Wu, J.; et al. Efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity of an Enterovirus 71 vaccine in China. N. Engl. J. Med. 2014, 370, 818-828. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. Kiener, T.K.; Premanand, B.; Kwang, J. Immune responses to baculovirus-displayed Enterovirus 71 VP1 antigen. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2013, 12, 357-364. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. Meng, T.; Kolpe, A.B.; Kiener, T.K.; Chow, V.T.K.; Kwang, J. Display of VP1 on the surface of baculovirus and its immunogenicity against heterologous human Enterovirus 71 strains in mice. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e21757. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
22. Lim, X.F.; Jia, Q.; Khong, W.X.; Yan, B.; Premanand, B.; Alonso, S.; Chow, V.T.K.; Kwang, J. Characterization of an isotype-dependent monoclonal antibody against linear neutralizing epitope effective for prophylaxis of Enterovirus 71 infection. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e29751. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. Kiener, T.K.; Jia, Q.; Meng, T.; Chow, V.T.; Kwang, J. A novel universal neutralizing monoclonal antibody against Enterovirus 71 that targets the highly conserved "knob" region of VP3 protein. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2014, 8, e2895. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
24. Chang, G.-H.; Luo, Y.-J.; Wu, X.-Y.; Si, B.-Y.; Lin, L.; Zhu, Q.-Y. Monoclonal antibody induced with inactived EV71-Hn2 virus protects mice against lethal EV71-Hn2 virus infection. Virol. J. 2010, 7. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. Chou, A.H.; Liu, C.C.; Chang, J.Y.; Jiang, R.; Hsieh, Y.C.; Tsao, A.; Wu, C.L.; Huang, J.L.; Fung, C.P.; Hsieh, S.M.; et al. Formalin-inactivated EV71 vaccine candidate induced cross-neutralizing antibody against subgenotypes B1, B4, B5 and C4A in adult volunteers. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e79783. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
26. Mao, Q.; Cheng, T.; Zhu, F.; Li, J.;Wang, Y.; Li, Y.; Gao, F.; Yang, L.; Yao, X.; Shao, J.; et al. The cross-neutralizing activity of Enterovirus 71 subgenotype C4 vaccines in healthy chinese infants and children. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e79599. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
27. Wilton, T.; Dunn, G.; Eastwood, D.; Minor, P.D.; Martin, J. Effect of formaldehyde inactivation on poliovirus. J. Virol. 2014, 88, 11955-11964. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
28. Tirado, S.M.; Yoon, K.J. Antibody-dependent enhancement of virus infection and disease. Viral Immunol. 2003, 16, 69-86. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. Wang, S.-M.; Chen, I.C.; Su, L.-Y.; Huang, K.-J.; Lei, H.-Y.; Liu, C.-C. Enterovirus 71 infection of monocytes with antibody-dependent enhancement. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. CVI 2010, 17, 1517-1523. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. Han, J.-F.; Cao, R.-Y.; Deng, Y.-Q.; Tian, X.; Jiang, T.; Qin, E.D.; Qin, C.-F. Antibody dependent enhancement infection of Enterovirus 71 in vitro and in vivo. Virol. J. 2011, 8. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. Cao, R.Y.; Dong, D.Y.; Liu, R.J.; Han, J.F.;Wang, G.C.; Zhao, H.; Li, X.F.; Deng, Y.Q.; Zhu, S.Y.;Wang, X.Y.; et al. Human IgG subclasses against enterovirus type 71: Neutralization versus antibody dependent enhancement of infection. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e64024. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
32. Chen, C.W.; Lee, Y.P.; Wang, Y.-F.; Yu, C.K. Formaldehyde-inactivated human Enterovirus 71 vaccine is compatible for co-immunization with a commercial pentavalent vaccine. Vaccine 2011, 29, 2772-2776. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
33. Ogra, P.L.; Faden, H.;Welliver, R.C. Vaccination strategies for mucosal immune responses. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2001, 14, 430-445. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
34. Jarvis, D.L. Baculovirus-insect cell expression systems. Methods Enzymol. 2009, 463, 191-222. [PubMed]
35. Pennock, G.D.; Shoemaker, C.; Miller, L.K. Strong and regulated expression of Escherichia coli β-galactosidase in insect cells with a baculovirus vector. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1984, 4, 399-406. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
36. Smith, G.E.; Summers, M.D.; Fraser, M.J. Production of human β interferon in insect cells infected with a baculovirus expression vector. Mol. Cell. Biol. 1983, 3, 2156-2165. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
37. Miller, L.K. Baculoviruses as gene expression vectors. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1988, 42, 177-199. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. Luckow, V.A.; Summers, M.D. Trends in the development of baculovirus expression vectors. Nat. Biotechnol. 1988, 6, 47-55. [CrossRef]
39. O'Reilly, D.R.; Miller, L.K.; Luckow, V.A. Baculovirus Expression Vectors: A Laboratory Manual; Oxford University Press on Demand: Oxford, UK, 1994.
40. DuBois, R.M.; Aguilar-Yañez, J.M.; Mendoza-Ochoa, G.I.; Oropeza-Almazán, Y.; Schultz-Cherry, S.; Alvarez, M.M.; White, S.W.; Russell, C.J. The receptor-binding domain of influenza virus hemagglutinin produced in Escherichia coli folds into its native, immunogenic structure. J. Virol. 2011, 85, 865-872. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
41. Jifeng, D.; Juan, P.; Yingchun, Z.; Jinhua, L. Expression of H5N1 avian influenza virus haemagglutinin in a baculovirus expression system. Chin. J. Agric. Biotechnol. 2007, 4, 233-237. [CrossRef]
42. Ruiz-Gonzalvo, F.; Rodriguez, F.; Escribano, J.M. Functional and immunological properties of the baculovirus-expressed hemagglutinin of African swine fever virus. Virology 1996, 218, 285-289. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
43. Rajesh Kumar, S.; Syed Khader, S.M.; Kiener, T.K.; Szyporta, M.; Kwang, J. Intranasal immunization of baculovirus displayed hemagglutinin confers complete protection against mouse adapted highly pathogenic H7N7 reassortant influenza virus. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e63856. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
44. Berger, I.; Fitzgerald, D.J.; Richmond, T.J. Baculovirus expression system for heterologous multiprotein complexes. Nat. Biotechnol. 2004, 22, 1583-1587. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
45. Kost, T.A.; Condreay, J.P.; Jarvis, D.L. Baculovirus as versatile vectors for protein expression in insect and mammalian cells. Nat. Biotechnol. 2005, 23, 567-575. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
46. Jin, R.; Lv, Z.; Chen, Q.; Quan, Y.; Zhang, H.; Li, S.; Chen, G.; Zheng, Q.; Jin, L.; Wu, X.; et al. Safety and immunogenicity of H5N1 influenza vaccine based on baculovirus surface display system of Bombyx mori. PLoS ONE 2008, 3, e3933. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
47. Xu, X.G.;Wang, Z.S.; Zhang, Q.; Li, Z.C.; Zhao, H.N.; Li,W.; Tong, D.W.; Liu, H.J. Baculovirus surface display of e envelope glycoprotein of Japanese encephalitis virus and its immunogenicity of the displayed proteins in mouse and swine models. Vaccine 2011, 29, 636-643. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Premanand, B.; Kiener, T.K.; Meng, T.; Tan, Y.R.; Jia, Q.; Chow, V.T.; Kwang, J. Induction of protective immune responses against EV71 in mice by baculovirus encoding a novel expression cassette for capsid protein VP1. Antivir. Res. 2012, 95, 311-315. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
49. Roldão, A.; Mellado, M.C.M.; Castilho, L.R.; Carrondo, M.J.T.; Alves, P.M. Virus-like particles in vaccine development. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2010, 9, 1149-1176. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
50. Mariani, L.; Venuti, A. Hpv vaccine: An overview of immune response, clinical protection, and new approaches for the future. J. Transl. Med. 2010, 8. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
51. Chung, C.-Y.; Chen, C.-Y.; Lin, S.-Y.; Chung, Y.-C.; Chiu, H.-Y.; Chi,W.-K.; Lin, Y.-L.; Chiang, B.-L.; Chen,W.-J.; Hu, Y.-C. Enterovirus 71 virus-like particle vaccine: Improved production conditions for enhanced yield. Vaccine 2010, 28, 6951-6957. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
52. Ku, Z.; Ye, X.; Huang, X.; Cai, Y.; Liu, Q.; Li, Y.; Su, Z.; Huang, Z. Neutralizing antibodies induced by recombinant virus-like particles of Enterovirus 71 genotype C4 inhibit infection at pre- and post-attachment steps. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e57601. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
53. Lin, S.Y.; Yeh, C.T.; Li, W.H.; Yu, C.P.; Lin, W.C.; Yang, J.Y.; Wu, H.L.; Hu, Y.C. Enhanced Enterovirus 71 virus-like particle yield from a new baculovirus design. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2015, 112, 2005-2015. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
54. Cao, L.; Yi, Y.; Song, J.-D.; Tian, M.-M.; Tian, R.-G.; Meng, Q.-L.; Qiu, F.; Jia, Z.-Y.; Bi, S.L. The assemblage, purification and characterization of EV71 VLPs expressed in baculovirus. Chin. J. Virol. 2012, 28, 201-206, (In Chinese).
55. Whitford, M.; Stewart, S.; Kuzio, J.; Faulkner, P. Identification and sequence analysis of a gene encoding GP67, an abundant envelope glycoprotein of the baculovirus autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus. J. Virol. 1989, 63, 1393-1399. [PubMed]
56. Liu, C.-C.; Chou, A.-H.; Lien, S.-P.; Lin, H.-Y.; Liu, S.-J.; Chang, J.-Y.; Guo, M.-S.; Chow, Y.-H.; Yang,W.-S.; Chang, K.H.-W. Identification and characterization of a cross-neutralization epitope of Enterovirus 71. Vaccine 2011, 29, 4362-4372. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57. Lee, H.; Cifuente, J.O.; Ashley, R.E.; Conway, J.F.; Makhov, A.M.; Tano, Y.; Shimizu, H.; Nishimura, Y.; Hafenstein, S. A strain-specific epitope of Enterovirus 71 identified by cryo-electron microscopy of the complex with fab from neutralizing antibody. J. Virol. 2013, 87, 11363-11370. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
58. Xu, L.; He, D.; Li, Z.; Zheng, J.; Yang, L.; Yu, M.; Yu, H.; Chen, Y.; Que, Y.; Shih, J.W.K.; et al. Protection against lethal enterovirus 71 challenge in mice by a recombinant vaccine candidate containing a broadly cross-neutralizing epitope within the VP2 EF loop. Theranostics 2014, 4, 498-513. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
59. He, D.L.; Xia, N.S.; Xu, F.H.; Cheng, T.; Weng, Z.X.; Ge, S.X.; Chen, Y.X.; Chen, Z.M. Enterovirus 71 Neutralized Epitope Polypeptide and Application Thereof. CN102690327 A, 26 September 2012.
60. Deng, Y.-Q.; Ma, J.; Xu, L.-J.; Li, Y.-X.; Zhao, H.; Han, J.-F.; Tao, J.; Li, X.-F.; Zhu, S.-Y.; Qin, E.D.; et al. Generation and characterization of a protective mouse monoclonal antibody against human enterovirus 71. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2015, 99, 7663-7671. [PubMed]
61. Shingler, K.L.; Cifuente, J.O.; Ashley, R.E.; Makhov, A.M.; Conway, J.F.; Hafenstein, S. The enterovirus 71 procapsid binds neutralizing antibodies and rescues virus infection in vitro. J. Virol. 2015, 89, 1900-1908. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
62. Lin, T.; Xianyu, L.; Lyu, S. Monoclonal neutralizing antibodies against ev71 screened from mice immunized with yeast-produced virus-like particles. Virol. Sin. 2015, 30, 208-213. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
63. Xu, L.; Huang, K.J.; Ho, T.S.; Liu, C.C.; Lee, Y.R.; Lin, C.Y.; Shiuan, D.; Jiang, X.H. Monoclonal antibodies for diagnosis of Enterovirus 71. Monoclon. Antib. Immunodiagn. Immunother. 2013, 32, 386-394. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
64. Prabakaran, M.; Velumani, S.; He, F.; Karuppannan, A.K.; Geng, G.Y.; Yin, L.K.; Kwang, J. Protective immunity against influenza h5n1 virus challenge in mice by intranasal co-administration of baculovirus surface-displayed HA and recombinant CTB as an adjuvant. Virology 2008, 380, 412-420. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
65. Suzuki, T.; Chang, M.O.; Kitajima, M.; Takaku, H. Baculovirus activates murine dendritic cells and induces non-specific NK cell and T cell immune responses. Cell. Immunol. 2010, 262, 35-43. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
66. Prabakaran, M.; Meng, T.; He, F.; Yunrui, T.; Qiang, J.; Lin, R.T.; Kwang, J. Subcutaneous immunization with baculovirus surface-displayed hemagglutinin of pandemic H1N1 influenza A virus induces protective immunity in mice. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 2011, 18, 1582-1585. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
67. Gronowski, A.M.; Hilbert, D.M.; Sheehan, K.C.; Garotta, G.; Schreiber, R.D. Baculovirus stimulates antiviral effects in mammalian cells. J. Virol. 1999, 73, 9944-9951. [PubMed]
68. Syed Musthaq, S.; Madhan, S.; Sahul Hameed, A.S.; Kwang, J. Localization of VP28 on the baculovirus envelope and its immunogenicity against white spot syndrome virus in penaeus monodon. Virology 2009, 391, 315-324. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
69. Murges, D.; Kremer, A. Knebel-Morsdorf, D. Baculovirus transactivator ie1 is functional in mammalian cells. J. Gen. Virol. 1997, 78, 1507-1510. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
70. Leung, C.S.K. Endogenous antigen presentation of MHC class II epitopes through non-autophagic pathways. Front. Immunol. 2015, 6. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
71. Diebold, S.S.; Cotten, M.; Koch, N.; Zenke, M. Mhc class II presentation of endogenously expressed antigens by transfected dendritic cells. Gene Ther. 2001, 8, 487-493. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
72. McHeyzer-Williams, M.; Okitsu, S.; Wang, N.; McHeyzer-Williams, L. Molecular programming of B cell memory. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2012, 12, 24-34. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
73. Murphy, K.P.; Travers, P.; Walport, M.; Janeway, C. Janeway's Immunobiology; Garland Science: New York, NY, USA, 2008.
74. Cruz, I.; Meijer, C.J.L.M.; Walboomers, J.M.M.; Snijders, P.J.F.; Waal, I.V.D. Lack of MHC class I surface expression on neoplastic cells and poor activation of the secretory pathway of cytotoxic cells in oral squamous cell carcinomas. Br. J. Cancer 1999, 81, 881-889. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
75. Ura, T.; Okuda, K.; Shimada, M. Developments in viral vector-based vaccines. Vaccines 2014, 2, 624-641. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
76. Jolles, S.; Sewell, W.A.C.; Misbah, S.A. Clinical uses of intravenous immunoglobulin. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2005, 142, 1-11. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
77. Hughes, R.A.;Wijdicks, E.F.; Barohn, R.; Benson, E.; Cornblath, D.R.; Hahn, A.F.; Meythaler, J.M.; Miller, R.G.; Sladky, J.T.; Stevens, J.C. Practice parameter: Immunotherapy for guillain-barre syndrome: Report of the quality standards subcommittee of the american academy of neurology. Neurology 2003, 61, 736-740. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
78. Wang, S.M.; Lei, H.Y.; Huang, M.-C.; Su, L.-Y.; Lin, H.-C.; Yu, C.-K.; Wang, J.-L.; Liu, C.C. Modulation of cytokine production by intravenous immunoglobulin in patients with Enterovirus 71-associated brainstem encephalitis. J. Clin. Virol. 2006, 37, 47-52. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
79. Wang, S.M.; Ho, T.S.; Shen, C.-F.; Liu, C.C. Enterovirus 71, one virus and many stories. Pediatr. Neonatol. 2008, 49, 113-115. [CrossRef]
80. Cao, R.; Han, J.; Deng, Y.; Yu, M.; Qin, E.; Qin, C. Presence of high-titer neutralizing antibodies against Enterovirus 71 in intravenous immunoglobulin manufactured from Chinese donors. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2010, 50, 125-126. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
81. Bayry, J.; Lacroix-Desmazes, S.; Kazatchkine, M.D.; Kaveri, S.V. Intravenous immunoglobulin for infectious diseases: Back to the pre-antibiotic and passive prophylaxis era? Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 2004, 25, 306-310. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
82. Teeling, J.L.; Jansen-Hendriks, T.; Kuijpers, T.W.; de Haas, M.; van de Winkel, J.G.; Hack, C.E.; Bleeker, W.K. Therapeutic efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin preparations depends on the immunoglobulin G dimers: Studies in experimental immune thrombocytopenia. Blood 2001, 98, 1095-1099. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
83. Nimmerjahn, F.; Ravetch, J.V. The antiinflammatory activity of IgG: The intravenous IgG paradox. J. Exp. Med. 2007, 204, 11-15. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
84. Ameratunga, R.; Sinclair, J.; Kolbe, J. Increased risk of adverse events when changing intravenous immunoglobulin preparations. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2004, 136, 111-113. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
85. Feldmeyer, L.; Benden, C.; Haile, S.R.; Boehler, A.; Speich, R.; French, L.E.; Hofbauer, G.F. Not all intravenous immunoglobulin preparations are equally well tolerated. Acta Derm. Venereol. 2010, 90, 494-497. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
86. Schiff, R.I. Transmission of viral infections through intravenous immune globulin. N. Engl. J. Med. 1994, 331, 1649-1650. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
87. Wang, W.; Wang, E.Q.; Balthasar, J.P. Monoclonal antibody pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2008, 84, 548-558. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
88. Yokoyama,W.M.; Christensen, M.; Dos Santos, G.; Miller, D.; Ho, J.;Wu, T.; Dziegelewski, M.; Neethling, F.A. Production of monoclonal antibodies. Curr. Prot. Immunol. 2006. [CrossRef]
89. Sgro, C. Side-effects of a monoclonal antibody, muromonab CD3/orthoclone OKT3: Bibliographic review. Toxicology 1995, 105, 23-29. [CrossRef]
90. Lubeck, M.D.; Steplewski, Z.; Baglia, F.; Klein, M.H.; Dorrington, K.J.; Koprowski, H. The interaction of murine IgG subclass proteins with human monocyte fc receptors. J. Immunol. 1985, 135, 1299-1304. [PubMed]
91. McCool, D.; Birshtein, B.K.; Painter, R.H. Structural requirements of immunoglobulin G for binding to the Fc receptors of the human tumor cell lines U937, HL-60, ML-1, AND K562. J. Immunol. 1985, 135, 1975-1980. [PubMed]
92. Wang, H.; Ma, C.; Lu, Y.; Ji, X.; Pang, Y.; Hua, F.; Cui, L.; Ba, D.; He,W. Generation of human neutralizing monoclonal antibodies against the 2009 pandemic H1N1 virus from peripheral blood memory b lymphocytes. Cell. Mol. Immunol. 2013, 10, 403-412. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
93. Traggiai, E.; Becker, S.; Subbarao, K.; Kolesnikova, L.; Uematsu, Y.; Gismondo, M.R.; Murphy, B.R.; Rappuoli, R.; Lanzavecchia, A. An efficient method to make human monoclonal antibodies from memory B cells: Potent neutralization of SARS coronavirus. Nat. Med. 2004, 10, 871-875. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
94. Harding, F.A.; Stickler, M.M.; Razo, J.; DuBridge, R.B. The immunogenicity of humanized and fully human antibodies: Residual immunogenicity resides in the CDR regions. mAbs 2010, 2, 256-265. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
95. Jakobovits, A. Production of fully human antibodies by transgenic mice. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 1995, 6, 561-566. [CrossRef]
96. Lonberg, N. Human antibodies from transgenic animals. Nat. Biotechnol. 2005, 23, 1117-1125. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
97. Lonberg, N.; Taylor, L.D.; Harding, F.A.; Trounstine, M.; Higgins, K.M.; Schramm, S.R.; Kuo, C.C.; Mashayekh, R.;Wymore, K.; McCabe, J.G.; et al. Antigen-specific human antibodies from mice comprising four distinct genetic modifications. Nature 1994, 368, 856-859. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
98. Green, L.L.; Hardy, M.C.; Maynard-Currie, C.E.; Tsuda, H.; Louie, D.M.; Mendez, M.J.; Abderrahim, H.; Noguchi, M.; Smith, D.H.; Zeng, Y.; David, N.E.; et al. Antigen-specific human monoclonal antibodies from mice engineered with human Ig heavy and light chain YACs. Nat. Genet. 1994, 7, 13-21. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
99. Carter, P.J. Potent antibody therapeutics by design. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2006, 6, 343-357. [PubMed]
100. Brüggemann, M.; Caskey, H.M.; Teale, C.; Waldmann, H.; Williams, G.T.; Surani, M.A.; Neuberger, M.S. A repertoire of monoclonal antibodies with human heavy chains from transgenic mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1989, 86, 6709-6713. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
101. Neuberger, M.S.; Williams, G.T.; Mitchell, E.B.; Jouhal, S.S.; Flanagan, J.G.; Rabbitts, T.H. A hapten-specific chimaeric IgE antibody with human physiological effector function. Nature 1985, 314, 268-270. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
102. Morrison, S.L.; Johnson, M.J.; Herzenberg, L.A.; Oi, V.T. Chimeric human antibody molecules: Mouse antigen-binding domains with human constant region domains. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1984, 81, 6851-6855. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
103. Gorman, S.D.; Clark, M.R. Humanisation of monoclonal antibodies for therapy. Semin. Immunol. 1990, 2, 457-466. [PubMed]
104. Hwang, W.Y.; Foote, J. Immunogenicity of engineered antibodies. Methods 2005, 36, 3-10. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
105. Tan, Y.; Ng, Q.; Jia, Q.; Kwang, J.; He, F. A novel humanized antibody neutralizes H5N1 influenza virus via two different mechanisms. J. Virol. 2015, 89, 3712-3722. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
106. Janeway, C.A.; Travers, P.;Walport, M.; Shlomchik, M.J. Structural variation in immunoglobulin constant regions. Garland Science: New York, NY, USA, 2001.
107. Stewart, R.; Hammond, S.A.; Oberst, M.; Wilkinson, R.W. The role of Fc receptors in the activity of immunomodulatory antibodies for cancer. J. ImmunoTher. Cancer 2014, 2, 29. [CrossRef]