Fractal Geometry of Aerosol Particles

Biophysical Chemistry of Fractal Structures and Processes in Environmental Systems

Volumn 11, Issue , 2008, Pages 273-315

  Colbeck, Ian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ESSEX   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Aerosol particle fractal geometry; Combustion generated fractals and heterogeneous reactions; Differential mobility analyser (DMA); Fractal morphology and atmospheric process modification; Fractional Brownian motion (FBM) theory; Planar multi angular light scattering measurements; Power law relationship; Transport properties and aerosol instrumentation

Indexed keywords

AEROSOLS; ATMOSPHERIC MOVEMENTS; BROWNIAN MOVEMENT; LIGHT SCATTERING;

ATMOSPHERIC PROCESS; DIFFERENTIAL MOBILITY; FRACTAL GEOMETRY; FRACTIONAL BROWNIAN MOTION; HETEROGENEOUS REACTIONS; LIGHT SCATTERING MEASUREMENT; POWER LAW RELATIONSHIP;

FRACTALS;

EID: 84948397674     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470511206.ch9     Document Type: Chapter

References (139)

1. Ramanathan, V., Crutzen, P.J., Lelieveld, J., Mitra, A.P., Althausen, D., Anderson, J., Andreae, M.O., Cantrell, W., Cass, G.R., Chung, C.E., Clarke, A.D., Coakley, J.A., Collins, W.D., Conant, W.C., Dulac, F., Heintzenberg, J., Heymsfield, A.J., Holben, B., Howell, S., Hudson, J., Jayaraman, A., Kiehl, J.T., Krishnamurti, T.N., Lubin, D., McFarquhar, G., Novakov, T., Ogren, J.A., Podgorny, I.A., Prather, K., Priestley, K., Prospero, J.M., Quinn, P.K., Rajeev, K., Rasch, P., Rupert, S., Sadourny, R., Satheesh, S.K., Shaw, G.E., Sheridan, P. and Valero, F.P.J. (2001). Indian Ocean experiment: an integrated analysis of the climate forcing and effects of the great Indo-Asian haze. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 106, 28 371-28 398.
2. Ackerman, A.S., Toon, O.B., Stevens, D.E., Heymsfield, A.J., Ramanathan, V. and Welton, E.J. (2000). Reduction of tropical cloudiness by soot. Science, 288, 1042-1047.
3. Chughtai, A.R., Kim, J.M. and Smith, D.M. (2003). The effect of temperature and humidity on the reaction of ozone with combustion soot: implications for reactivity near the tropopause. J. Atmos. Chem., 45, 231-243.
4. Forest, S.R. and Witten, T.A. (1979). Long-range correlations in smoke particle aggregates. J. Appl. Phys. A, 12, L109-L117.
5. Witten, T A. and Sander, L.M. (1981). Diffusion-limited aggregation, a kinetic critical phenomenon. Phys. Rev. Lett., 47, 1400-1403.
6. Kaye, B. (1993). Chaos and Complexity. VCH, Weinheim.
7. Wu, M.K. and Friedlander, S.K. (1993). Note on the power-law equation for fractal-like aerosol aggregates. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 159, 246-248.
8. Cai, J., Lu, N.L. and Sorensen, C.M. (1995). Analysis of fractal cluster morphology parameters-structural coefficient and density autocorrelation function cutoff. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 171, 470-473.
9. Samson R.J., Mulholland, G.W. and Gentry, J.W. (1987). Structural analysis of soot aggregates. Langmuir, 3, 272-281.
10. Brasil, A.M., Farias, T.L. and Carvalho, M.G. (2000). Evaluation of the fractal properties of cluster-cluster aggregates. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 33, 440-454
11. Oh, C. and Sorensen, C.M. (1997). The effect of overlap between monomers on the determination of fractal cluster morphology. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 193, 17-25.
12. Sorensen, C.M. and Roberts, G.C. (1997). The prefactor of fractal aggregates. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 186, 447-452.
13. Kaye, B. (1989). A Random Walk Through Fractal Dimensions. VCH, Weinheim.
14. Smirnov, B.M. (1990). The properties of fractal clusters. Phys. Rep. Rev. Sect. Phys. Lett., 188, 1-78.
15. Viscek, T. (1992). Fractal Growth Phenomena.World Scientific, San Francisco, CA.
16. Oh, C. and Sorensen, C.M. (1998). Structure factor of diffusion-limited aggregation clusters: local structure and non-self-similarity. Phys. Rev. E, 57, 784-790.
17. Meakin, P. (1984). Effects of cluster trajectories on cluster-cluster aggregation-a comparison of linear and Brownian trajectories in two-dimensional and three-dimensional simulations. Phys. Rev. A, 29, 997-999.
18. Baron, P.A., Sorensen, C.M. and Brockmann, J.E. (2001). Nonspherical particle measurements: shape factors, fractals and fibers. In Aerosol Measurement, 2nd edition, Baron, P.A. andWilleke, K. (eds).Wiley Interscience, New York, pp. 705-749.
19. Meakin, P. (1999). A historical introduction to computer models fro fractal aggregates. J. Sol-Gel Sci. Technol., 15, 97-117.
20. Schaeffer, D.W. (1988). Fractal models and the structure of materials. MRS Bull., 13, 1023-1027.
21. Huang, P.F., Turpin, B.J., Pipho, M.J., Kittelson, D.B. and McMurry, P.H. (1994). Effects of water condensation and evaporation on diesel chain aggregate morphology. J. Aerosol Sci., 25, 447-459.
22. Cleary, T., Samson, R. and Gentry, J.W. (1990). Methodology for fractal analysis of combustion aerosols and particle clusters. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 12, 518-525.
23. Katrinak, K.A., Rez, P., Perkes, P.R. and Buseck, P.R. (1993). Fractal geometry of carbonaceous aggregates from an urban aerosol. Environ. Sci. Technol., 27, 539-547.
24. Oh, C. and Sorensen, C.M. (1999). Scaling approach for the structure factor of a generalized system of scatterings. J. Nanopart. Res., 1, 369-377.
25. Tence, M., Chevalier, J.P. and Jullien, R. (1986). On the Measurement of the fractal dimension of aggregated particles by electron-microscopy-experimental method, corrections and comparison with numerical models. J. Phys. (Paris), 47, 1989-1998.
26. Rogak, S.N. and Flagan, R.C. (1992). Characterization of the structure of aggregate particles. Part. Part. Syst. Char., 9, 19-27.
27. Brasil, A.M., Farias, T.L. and Carvalho, M.G. (1999).Arecipe for image characterization of fractal-like aggregates. J. Aerosol Sci., 30, 1379-1389.
28. Wentzel, M., Gorzawski, H., Naumann, K.H., Saathoff, H. and Weinbruch, S. (2003). Transmission electron microscopical and aerosol dynamical characterization of soot aerosols. J. Aerosol Sci., 34, 1347-1370.
29. Voss, R.F. (1984). Multiparticle fractal aggregation. J. Stat. Phys., 36, 861-872.
30. Colbeck, I. (1995). Fractal analysis of aerosol particles. Anal. Proc., 32, 383-386.
31. Colbeck, I. and Nyeki, S. (1992). Optical and dynamical investigations of fractal clusters. Sci. Prog., 76, 149-166.
32. Bonczyk, P.A. and Hall, R.J. (1992). Measurement of the fractal dimension of soot using uv laser radiation. Langmuir, 8, 1666-1670.
33. Sorensen, C.M., Cai, J.and Lu, N. (1992). Light scattering measurements of monomer size, monomers per aggregate, and fractal dimension for soot aggregates in flames. Appl. Opt., 31, 6547-6557.
34. Schmidt-Ott, A. (1988). In-situ measurement of the fractal dimensionality of ultrafine aerosol particles. Appl. Phys. Lett., 52, 954-956.
35. Kutz, S. and Schmidt-Ott, A. (1990). Use of a low-pressure impactor for fractal analysis of submicron particles. J. Aerosol Sci., 21, S47-S50.
36. Wu Z.F., Colbeck, I. and Simons, S. (1994). Determination of the fractal dimension of aerosols from kinetic coagulation. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys., 27, 2291-2296.
37. Nyeki, S. and Colbeck, I. (1994). The measurement of the fractal dimension of individual in-situ soot aggregates using a modified Millikan cell technique. J. Aerosol Sci., 25, 75-90.
38. Nyeki, S. and Colbeck, I. (1995). Fractal dimension analysis of single, in-situ, restructured carbonaceous aggregates. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 23, 109-120.
39. Weber, A.P., Baltensperger, U., Gaggeler, H.W. and Schmidt-Ott, A. (1996). In situ characterization and structure modification of aggregated aerosol particles. J. Aerosol Sci., 27, 915-929.
40. Mountain, R.D. and Mulholland, G.W. (1988). Light scattering from simulated smoke aggregates. Langmuir, 4, 1321-1326.
41. Zhang, H.X., Sorensen, C.M., Ramer, E.R., Olivier, B.J. and Merklin, J.F. (1988). In-situ optical structure factor measurements of an aggregating soot aerosol. Langmuir, 4, 867-871.
42. Gangopadhyay, S., Elminyawi, I. and Sorensen, C.M. (1991). Optical structure factor measurements of soot particles in a premixed flame. Appl. Opt., 30, 4859-4864.
43. Sorensen, C.M. (2001). Light scattering by fractal aggregates: a review. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 35, 648-687.
44. Di Stasio, S. (2001). Observation of restructuring of nanoparticle soot aggregates in a diffusion flame by static light scattering. J. Aerosol Sci., 32, 509-524.
45. Riefler, N., di Stasio, S. andWriedt, T. (2004). Structural analysis of clusters using configurational and orientational averaging in light scattering analysis. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 89, 323-342.
46. Di Stasio, S., Konstandopoulos, A.G. and Kostoglou, M. (2002). Cluster-cluster aggregation kinetics and primary particle growth of soot nanoparticles in flame by light scattering and numerical simulations. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 247, 33-46.
47. Sorensen, C.M. and Hageman, W.B. (2001). Two-dimensional soot. Langmuir, 17, 5431-5434.
48. Wang, G.M. and Sorensen, C.M. (1999). Diffusive mobility of fractal aggregates over the entire Knudsen number range. Phys. Rev. E, 60, 3036-3044.
49. Kim, H.W. and Choi, M. (2003). In situ line measurement of mean aggregate size and fractal dimension along the flame axis by planar laser light scattering. J. Aerosol Sci., 34, 1633-1645.
50. Schmidt-Ott, A. (1988). New approaches to in-situ characterization of ultrafine aggregates. J. Aerosol Sci., 19, 553-563.
51. Weber, A.P. and Friedlander, S.K. (1997). In situ determination of the activation energy for restructuring of nanometer aerosol agglomerates. J. Aerosol Sci., 28, 179-192.
52. Karlsson, M.N.A., Deppert, K., Karlsson, L.S., Magnusson, M.H., Malm, J.O. and Srinivasan, N.S. (2005). Compaction of agglomerates of aerosol nanoparticles: a compilation of experimental data. J. Nanopart. Res., 7, 43-49.
53. Park, K., Cao, F., Kittelson, D.B. and McMurry, P.H. (2003). Relationship between particle mass and mobility for diesel exhaust particles. Environ. Sci. Technol., 37, 577-583.
54. DeCarlo, P.F., Slowik, J.G., Worsnop, D.R., Davidovits, P. and Jimenez, J.L. (2004). Particle morphology and density characterization by combined mobility and aerodynamic diameter measurements. Part 1: theory. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 38, 1185-1205.
55. Schmidt-Ott, A., Baltensperger, U., Gaggeler, H.W. and Jost, D.T. (1990). Scaling behaviour of physical parameters describing aggregates. J. Aerosol Sci., 21, 711-717.
56. Colbeck, I. (1998). Physical and Chemical Properties of Aerosols. Blackie Academic and Professional, London
57. Rogak, S.N., Flagan, R.C. and Nguyen, H.V. (1993). The mobility and structure of aerosol aggregates. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 18, 25-47.
58. Van Gulijk, C., Marijnissen, J.C.M., Makkee, M., Moulijn, J.A. and Schmidt-Ott, A. (2004). Measuring diesel soot with a scanning mobility particle sizer and an electrical low-pressure impactor: performance assessment with a model for fractal-like agglomerates. J. Aerosol Sci., 35, 633-655.
59. Slowik, J.G., Stainken, K., Davidovits, P., Williams, L.R., Jayne, J.T., Kolb, C.E., Worsnop, D.R., Rudich, Y., DeCarlo, P.F. and Jimenez, J.L. (2004). Particle morphology and density characterization by combined mobility and aerodynamic diameter measurements. Part 2: application to combustion-generated soot aerosols as a function of fuel equivalence ratio. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 38, 1206-1222.
60. Burtscher, H., Kunzel, S. and Huglin, C. (1998). Characterization of particles in combustion engine exhaust. J. Aerosol Sci., 29, 389-396.
61. Burtscher, H. (2000). Characterization of ultra fine particle emissions from combustion systems. Soc. Automot. Eng.: Tech. Pap. Ser., SAE 2000-01-1997.
62. Schleicher, B., Kunzel, S. and Burtscher, H. (1995). In-situ measurement of size and density of submicron aerosol particles. J. Appl. Phys., 78, 4416-4422.
63. Skillas, G., Kunzel, S., Burtscher, H., Baltensperger, U. and Siegmann, K. (1998). High fractal-like dimension of diesel soot aggregates. J. Aerosol Sci., 29, 411-419.
64. McMurry, P.H., Wang, X., Park, K. and Ehara, K. (2002). The relationship between mass and mobility for atmospheric particles: a new technique for measuring particle density. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 36, 227-238.
65. Ehara, K., Hagwood, C. and Coakley, K.J. (1996). Novel method to classify aerosol particles according to their mass-to-charge ratio-aerosol particle mass analyser. J. Aerosol Sci., 27, 217-234.
66. Maricq, M.M., Podsiadlik, D.H. and Chase, R.E. (2000). Size distributions of motor vehicle exhaust PM: a comparison between ELPI and SMPS measurements. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 33, 239-260.
67. Virtanen, A., Ristimaki, J. and Keskinen, J. (2004). Method for measuring effective density and fractal dimension of aerosol aggregates. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 38, 437-446.
68. Maricq, M.M. and Xu, M. (2004). The effective density and fractal dimension of soot particles from premixed flames and motor vehicle exhaust. J. Aerosol Sci., 35, 1251-1274.
69. Kutz, S. and Schmidt-Ott, A. (1992). Characterization of aggregates by condensation induced restructuring. J. Aerosol Sci., 23, S357-S360.
70. Smallwood, G.J., Clavel, D., Gareau, D., Sawchuk, R.A., Witze, P.O., Axelsson, B., Bachalo, W.D. and Gulder, O.L. (2002). Concurrent quantitative laser-induced incandescence and SMPS measurements of EGR effects on particulate emissions from a TDI diesel engine. Soc. Automot. Eng.: Tech. Pap. Ser., SAE 2002-01-2715.
71. Cai, J., and Sorensen, C.M. (1994). Diffusion of fractal aggregates in the free molecular regime. Phys. Rev. E, 50, 3397-3400.
72. Meakin, P. and Jullien, R. (1988). The effects of restructuring on the geometry of clusters formed by diffusion-limited, ballistic, and reaction-limited cluster cluster aggregation, J. Chem. Phys., 89, 246-250.
73. Colbeck, I. and Wu, Z. (1994). Measurement of the fractal dimensions of smoke aggregates. J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., 27, 670-675.
74. Colbeck, I., Eleftheriadis, K. and Simons, S. (1989). The dynamics and structure of smoke aerosols. J. Aerosol Sci., 20, 875-878.
75. Colbeck, I., Nyeki, S. and Wu, Z. (1992). In situ measurement of the fractal dimension of aerosols. J. Aerosol Sci., 23, S365-S368.
76. Rogak, S.N. and Flagan, R.C. (1990). Stokes drag on self-similar clusters of spheres. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 134, 206-218
77. Nyeki, S., Colbeck, I. and Kaye, B.H. (1994). Measurement of the fractal dimension of individual soot aggregates in two and three dimensions. In Proceedings of Fourth International Aerosol Conference, 29 August-2 September, Los Angeles, pp. 32-33.
78. Meakin, P., Donn, B. and Mulholland, G.W. (1989). Collisions between point masses and fractal aggregates. Langmuir, 5, 510-518.
79. Megaridis, C.M. and Dobbins, R.A. (1990). Morphological description of flamegenerated materials. Combust. Sci. Technol., 71, 95-109.
80. Koylu, U.O., Xing, Y.C. and Rosner, D.E. (1995). Fractal morphology analysis of combustion-generated aggregates using angular light scattering and electron microscope images. Langmuir, 11, 4848-4854.
81. Park, K., Kittelson, D.B. and McMurry, P.H. (2004). Structural properties of diesel exhaust particles measured by transmission electron microscopy (TEM): relationships to particle mass and mobility. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 38, 881-889.
82. Naumann, K.H. (2003). COSIMA-a computer program simulating the dynamics of fractal aerosols. J. Aerosol Sci., 34, 1371-1397.
83. Luo, C.H., Wen, C.Y., Liaw, J.J., Chiu, S.H. and Lee, W.M.G. (2004). Texture characterization of atmospheric fine particles by fractional Brownian motion analysis. Atmos. Environ., 38, 935-940.
84. Luo, C.H., Lee, W.M.G., Lai, Y.C., Wen, C.Y. and Liaw, J.J. (2005). Measuring the fractal dimension of diesel soot agglomerates by fractional Brownian motion processor. Atmos. Environ., 39, 3565-3572.
85. Gwaze, P., Schmid, O., Annegarn, H.J., Andreae, M.O., Huth, J. and Helas, G. (2006). Comparison of three methods of fractal analysis applied to soot aggregates from wood combustion. J. Aerosol Sci., 37, 820-838.
86. Kutz, S. (1994). In-situ Methoden zur Bestimmung von Struktureigenschaften gasgetragener Aggregate. PhD thesis, University of Duisburg.
87. Lepperhof, G., Stommel, P., Luers, B. and Searles, R.A. (2000). Vehicle study on the impact of diesel fuel sulfur content on the performance of DeNox catalysts and the influence of DeNox catalysts on particle size and number. Soc. Automot. Eng.: Tech. Pap. Ser., SAE 2000-01-1877.
88. Colbeck, I., Atkinson, B. and Johar, Y. (1997). The morphology and optical properties of soot produced by different fuels. J. Aerosol Sci., 28, 715-723.
89. Chakrabarty, R.K., Moosmuller, H, Garro, M.A., Arnott, W.P., Walker, J., Susott, R.A., Babbitt, R.E., Wold, C.E., Lincoln, E.N and Ha, W.M. (2006). Emissions from the laboratory combustion of wildland fuels: particle morphology and size. J. Geophys. Res., 111, D07204. DOI: 10.1029/2005JD006659
90. Liu, B.Y.B., Srinivasachar, S. and Helble, J.J. (2000). The effect of chemical composition on the fractal-like structure of combustion-generated inorganic aerosols. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 33, 459-469.
91. Hurd, A.J. and Flower, W.L. (1988). Insitu Growth and Structure of Fractal Silica Aggregates in a Flame, J. Colloid Interface Sci., 122, 178-192.
92. Martin, J.E., Schaefer, D.W. and Hurd, A.J. (1986). Fractal geometry of vapor-phase aggregates. Phys. Rev. A, 33, 3540-3543.
93. Sinha, S.K., Fretoft, T. and Kjems, J.K. (1984). Observations of power law correlations in silica particle aggregates by small-angle neutron scattering. In Kinetics of Aggregation and Gelation, Family, F. and Landau, D.P. (eds). North-Holland, New York, pp. 87-90.
94. Xing, Y., Rosner, D.E., Koylu, U.O. and Tandon, P. (1997). Morphological evolution of nanoparticles in diffusion flames: measurements and modelling. AIChE J., 43, 2641-2649.
95. Jullien, R., Kolb, M. and Botet, R. (1984). Aggregation by kinetic clustering of clusters in dimensions D greater-than 2, J. Phys. Lett. (Paris), 45, L211-L216.
96. Kim, W.Y., Sorensen, C.M., Fry, D. and Chakrabarti, A. (2006). Soot aggregates, superaggregates and gel-like networks in laminar diffusion flames. J. Aerosol Sci., 37, 386-401.
97. Kim, W., Sorensen, C.M. and Chakrabarti, A. (2004). Universal occurrence of soot super-aggregates with a fractal dimension of 2.6 in heavily sooting laminar diffusion flames. Langmuir, 20, 3969-3973.
98. Sorensen, C.M., Kim, W., Fry, D., Shi, D. and Chakrabarti, A. (2003). Observation of soot superaggregates with a fractal dimension of 2.6 in laminar acetylene/air diffusion flames. Langmuir, 19, 7560-7563.
99. Fry, D., Chakrabarti, A., Kim, W. and Sorsensen, C.M. (2004). Structural crossover in dense irreversibly aggregating particulate systems. Phys. Rev. E, 69, art. no. 061401.
100. Murr, L.E. and Bang, J.J. (2003). Electron microscope comparisons of fine and ultra-fine carbonaceous and non-carbonaceous, airborne particulates. Atmos. Environ., 37, 4795-4806.
101. Xie, Y., Hopke, P.K., Casuccio, G. and Henderson, B. (1994). Use of multiple fractal dimensions to quantify airborne particle shape. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 20, 161-168.
102. Kindratenko, V.V., Vanespen, P.J.M., Treiger, B.A. and Vangrieken, R.E. (1994). Fractal dimensional classification of aerosol particles by computer-controlled scanning electron microscopy. Environ. Sci. Technol., 28, 2197-2202.
103. Lee, C.T. and Chou, C.C.K. (1994). Application of fractal geometry in quantitative characterization of aerosol morphology. Part. Part. Syst. Char., 11, 436-441.
104. Dye, A.L., Rhead, M.M. and Trier, C.J. (2000). The quantitative morphology of roadside and background urban aerosol in Plymouth, UK. Atmos. Environ., 34, 3139-3148.
105. Xiong, C. and Friedlander, S.K. (2001). Morphological properties of atmospheric aerosol aggregates, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 98, 11 851-11 856.
106. Mulholland, G.W., Samson, R.J., Mountain, R.D. and Ernst, M.H. (1988). Cluster size distribution for free molecular agglomeration. Energ. Fuels, 2, 481-486.
107. McDonald, R. and Biswas, P. (2004). A methodology to establish the morphology of ambient aerosols. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc., 54, 1069-1078.
108. McDonald, R., Hu, S.H., Martuzevicius, D., Grinshpun, S A., LeMasters, G. and Biswas, P. (2004). Intensive short term measurements of the ambient aerosol in the Greater Cincinnati airshed. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 38, 70-79.
109. Johnson, K.S., Zuberi, B., Molina, L.T., Molina, M.J., Iedema, M.J., Cowin, J.P., Gaspar, D.J., Wang, C. and Laskin, A. (2005). Processing of soot in an urban environment: case study from the Mexico City Metropolitan Area. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 3033-3043.
110. Zuberi, B., Johnson, K.S., Aleks, G.K., Molina, L.T. and Laskin, A. (2005). Hydrophilic properties of aged soot. Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, art. no. L01807.
111. Li, J., Anderson, J.R. and Buseck, P.R. (2003). TEM study of aerosol particles from clean and polluted marine boundary layers over the North Atlantic. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 108, art. no. 4189.
112. Hallett, J., Hudson, J.G. and Rogers, C.F. (1989). Characterization of combustion aerosols for haze and cloud formation. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 10, 70-83.
113. Jullien, R. and Meakin, P. (1989). Simple models for the restructuring of 3-dimensional ballistic aggregates. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 127, 265-272.
114. Kantor, Y. and Witten, T.A. (1984). Mechanical stability of tenuous objects. J. Phys. Lett. (Paris), 45, L675-L679.
115. Colbeck, I., Appleby, L., Hardman, E.J. and Harrison, R.M. (1990).The optical properties and morphology of cloud-processed carbonaceous smoke. J. Aerosol Sci., 21, 527-538.
116. Ramachandran, G. and Reist, P.C. (1995). Characterization of morphological changes in aggregates subject to condensation and evaporation using multiple fractal dimensions. Aerosol Sci. Technol., 23, 431-442.
117. Mikhailov, E.F., Vlasenko, S.S., Kramer, L. and Niessner, R. (2001). Interaction of soot aerosol particles with water droplets: influence of surface hydrophilicity. J. Aerosol Sci., 32, 697-711.
118. Weingartner, E., Baltensperger, U. and Burtscher, H. (1995). Growth and structural change of combustion aerosols at high relative humidity. Environ. Sci. Technol., 29, 2982-2986.
119. Liousse, C., Cachier, H. and Jennings, S.G. (1993). Optical and thermal measurements of black carbon aerosol content in different environments-variation of the specific attenuation cross-section, sigma. Atmos. Environ. Part A: Gen. Top., 27, 1203-1211.
120. Zhang, X.Q., Turpin, B.J., McMurry, P.H., Hering, S.V. and Stolzenburg, M.R. (1994). Mie theory evaluation of species contributions to 1990 wintertime visibility reduction in the Grand Canyon. J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc., 44, 153-162.
121. Friedlander, S.K., Jang, H.D. and Ryu, K.H. (1998). Elastic behaviour of nanoparticle chain aggregates. Appl. Phys. Lett., 72, 173-175.
122. 3 generated by laser ablation. J. Appl. Phys., 87, 63-73.
123. Suh, Y.J. and Friedlander, S.K. (2003). Origins of the elastic behaviour of nanoparticle chain aggregates: measurements using nanostructure manipulation device, J. Appl. Phys., 93, 3515-3523.
124. Karcher, B. (1999). Aviation-produced aerosols and contrails, Surv. Geophys., 20, 113-167.
125. Fichter, C., Marquart, S., Sausen, R. and Lee, D.S. (2005). The impact of cruise altitude on contrails and related radiative forcing, Meteorol. Z., 14, 563-572.
126. Bekki, S. (1997). The possible role of aircraft-generated soot in the middle latitude ozone depletion. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 102, 10 751-10 758.
127. 3/NOx ratio in the remote troposphere during MLOPEX 2: evidence for nitric acid reduction on carbonaceous aerosols? Geophys. Res. Lett., 23, 2609-2612.
128. Lary, D.J., Shallcross, D.E., and Toumi, R. (1999). Carbonaceous aerosols and their potential role in atmospheric chemistry. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 104, 15 929-15 940.
129. Lary, D.J., Lee, A.M., Toumi, R., Newchurch, M.J., Pirre, M. and Renard, J.B. (1997). Carbon aerosols and atmospheric photochemistry. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 102, 3671-3682.
130. 3 treated soot surfaces: atmospheric implications. Atmos Chem. Phys., 5, 77-83.
131. Coelho, D., Bekki, S., Thovert, J.F. and Adler, P.M. (2000). Uptake on fractal particles 1. Theoretical framework. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 105, 3905-3916.
132. Bekki, S., David, C., Law, K., Smith, D.M., Coelho, D., Thovert, J.F. and Adler, P.M. (2000). Uptake on fractal particles 2. Applications. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 105, 3917-3928.
133. Blake, D.F. and Kato, K. (1995). Latitudinal distribution of black carbon soot in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 100, 7195-7202.
134. Chughtai, A.R., Brooks, M.E. and Smith, D.M. (1996). Hydration of black carbon. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 101, 19 505-19 514.
135. Smith, D.M. and Chughtai, A.R. (1996). Reaction kinetics of ozone at low concentrations with n-hexane soot. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 101, 19 607-19 620.
136. De Gouw, J.A. and Lovejoy, E.R. (1998). Reactive uptake of ozone by liquid organic compounds. Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 931-934.
137. Lall, A.A. and Friedlander, S.K. (2006). On-line measurement of ultrafine aggregate surface area and volume distributions by electrical mobility analysis: I. Theoretical analysis. J. Aerosol Sci., 37, 260-271.
138. Lall, A.A., Seipenbusch, M., Rong, W. and Friedlander, S.K. (2006). On-line measurement of ultrafine aggregate surface area and volume distributions by electrical mobility analysis: II. Comparison of measurements and theory. J. Aerosol Sci., 37, 272-282.
139. Carero, A.D.P., Hoet, P.H.M, Verschaeve, L., Schoeters, G. and Nemery, B. (2001). Genotoxic effects of carbon black particles, diesel exhaust particles, and urban air particulates and their extracts on a human alveolar epithelial cell line (A549) and a human monocytic cell line (THP-1). Environ. Mol. Mutagen., 37, 155-163.