Impact of the lateral blast on the spatial pattern and grain size characteristics of the 18 May 1980 Mount St. Helens fallout deposit

Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth

Volumn 120, Issue 9, 2015, Pages 6018-6038

  Eychenne, Julia ^a   Cashman, Katharine ^a   Rust, Alison ^a   Durant, Adam ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OSLO   (Norway)

^c Michigan Technological University   (United States)

Author keywords

copyroclastic density current plumes; fine ash; Mount St. Helens; sedimentation

Indexed keywords

FALLOUT; FLY ASH; GRAIN SIZE; PLUME; PYROCLASTIC DEPOSIT; SIZE DISTRIBUTION; SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION; VOLCANIC ERUPTION;

CASCADE RANGE; MOUNT SAINT HELENS; UNITED STATES; WASHINGTON [UNITED STATES];

EID: 84945208867     PISSN: 21699313     EISSN: 21699356     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/2015JB012116     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Andrews, B. J., and, M. Manga, (2012), Experimental study of turbulence, sedimentation, and co-ignimbrite mass partitioning in dilute pyroclastic density currents, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 225-226, 30-44.
2. Armienti, P., G. Macedonio, and, M. T. Pareschi, (1988), A numerical model for simulation of tephra transport and deposition: Applications to May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens eruption, J. Geophys. Res., 93 (B6), 6463-6476, doi: 10.1029/JB093iB06p06463.
3. Beckett, F. M., C. S. Witham, M. Hort, J. A. Stevenson, C. Bonadonna, and, S. C. Millington, (2014), The sensitivity of NAME forecasts of the transport of volcanic ash clouds to the physical characteristics assigned to the particles, UK Met Office Forecasting Res. Tech. Rep., 592.
4. Bellotti, F., L. Capra, D. Sarocchi, and, M. D'Antonio, (2010), Geostatistics and multivariate analysis as a tool to characterize volcaniclastic deposits: Application to Nevado de Toluca volcano, Mexico, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 191 (1-2), 117-128.
5. Berlo, K., J. Blundy, S. Turner, and, C. Hawkesworth, (2007), Textural and chemical variation in plagioclase phenocrysts from the 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens, USA, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 154 (3), 291-308.
6. Bingemer, H., et al., (2012), Atmospheric ice nuclei in the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic ash plume, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 857-867.
7. Blundy, J., and, K. V. Cashman, (2001), Ascent-driven crystallisation of dacite magmas at Mount St. Helens, 1980-1986, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 140, 631-650.
8. Bonadonna, C., and, B. F. Houghton, (2005), Total grain-size distribution and volume of tephra-fall deposits, Bull. Volcanol., 67 (5), 441-456.
9. Bonadonna, C., G. G. J. Ernst, and, R. S. J. Sparks, (1998), Thickness variations and volume estimates of tephra fall deposits: The importance of particle Reynolds number, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 81 (3-4), 173-187.
10. Bonadonna, C., et al., (2002), Tephra fallout in the eruption of Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat, Geol. Soc. London Mem., 21 (1), 483-516.
11. Bonadonna, C., R. Genco, M. Gouhier, M. Pistolesi, R. Cioni, F. Alfano, A. Hoskuldsson, and, M. Ripepe, (2011), Tephra sedimentation during the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption (Iceland) from deposit, radar, and satellite observations, J. Geophys. Res., 116, B12202, doi: 10.1029/2011JB008462.
12. Bonadonna, C., R. Cioni, M. Pistolesi, M. Elissondo, and, V. Baumann, (2015), Sedimentation of long-lasting wind-affected volcanic plumes: The example of the 2011 rhyolitic Cordõn Caulle eruption, Chile, Bull. Volcanol., 77 (2), 1-19.
13. Brazier, S., A. N. Davis, H. Sigurdsson, and, R. S. J. Sparks, (1982), Fall-out and deposition of volcanic ash during the 1979 explosive eruption of the Soufriere of St. Vincent, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 14 (3-4), 335-359.
14. Brown, R. J., T. L. Barry, M. J. Branney, M. S. Pringle, and, S. E. Bryan, (2003), The Quaternary pyroclastic succession of southeast Tenerife, Canary Islands: Explosive eruptions, related caldera subsidence, and sector collapse, Geol. Mag., 140 (03), 265-288.
15. Brown, R. J., C. Bonadonna, and, A. J. Durant, (2012), A review of volcanic ash aggregation, Phys. Chem. Earth, Parts A/B/C, 45-46, 65-78.
16. Bursik, M. I., R. S. J. Sparks, J. S. Gilbert, and, S. N. Carey, (1992), Sedimentation of tephra by volcanic plumes: I. Theory and its comparison with a study of the Fogo A Plinian deposit, Sao Miguel (Azores), Bull. Volcanol., 54 (4), 329-344.
17. Caballero, L., D. Sarocchi, E. Soto, and, L. Borselli, (2014), Rheological changes induced by clast fragmentation in debris flows, J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf., 119, 1800-1817, doi: 10.1002/2013JF002942.
18. Calder, E. S., R. S. J. Sparks, and, M. C. Gardeweg, (2000), Erosion, transport and segregation of pumice and lithic clasts in pyroclastic flows inferred from ignimbrite at Lascar Volcano, Chile, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 104 (1-4), 201-235.
19. Carazzo, G., and, A. M. Jellinek, (2012), A new view of the dynamics, stability and longevity of volcanic clouds, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 325-326, 39-51.
20. Carazzo, G., and, A. M. Jellinek, (2013), Particle sedimentation and diffusive convection in volcanic ash-clouds, J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 118, 1420-1437, doi: 10.1002/jgrb.50155.
21. Carey, S., and, R. S. J. Sparks, (1986), Quantitative models of the fallout and dispersal of tephra from volcanic eruption columns, Bull. Volcanol., 48 (2), 109-125.
22. Carey, S., H. Sigurdsson, J. E. Gardner, and, C. W. Criswell, (1990), Variations in column height and magma discharge during the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St Helens, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 43, 99-112.
23. Carey, S. N., and, H. Sigurdsson, (1982), Influence of particle aggregation on deposition of distal tephra from the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens volcano, J. Geophys. Res., 87 (B8), 7061-7072, doi: 10.1029/JB087iB08p07061.
24. Casadevall, T., P. Delos Reyes, and, D. Schneider, (1996), The 1991 Pinatubo eruptions and their effects on aircraft operations, in Fire and Mud: Eruptions and Lahars of Mount Pinatubo, edited by, C. G. Newhall, and, R. S. Punongbayan, pp. 625-636, Phil. Inst. Volcanol. and Seismolog., Quezon City, Philippines.
25. Cashman, K. V., and, R. P. Hoblitt, (2004), Magmatic precursors to the 18 May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, USA, Geology, 32 (2), 141-144.
26. Cashman, K. V., and, S. M. McConnell, (2005), Multiple levels of magma storage during the 1980 summer eruptions of Mount St. Helens, WA, Bull. Volcanol., 68 (1), 57-75.
27. Cashman, K. V., and, J. Taggart, (1983), Petrologic monitoring of 1981 and 1982 eruptive products from Mount St. Helens, Science, 221 (4618), 1385-1387.
28. Chakraborty, P., G. Gioia, and, S. Kieffer, (2006), Volcán Reventador's unusual umbrella, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L05313, doi: 10.1029/2005GL024915.
29. Cornell, W., S. Carey, and, H. Sigurdsson, (1983), Computer simulation of transport and deposition of the Campanian Y-5 ash, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 17 (1-4), 89-109.
30. Costa, A., A. Folch, and, G. Macedonio, (2010), A model for wet aggregation of ash particles in volcanic plumes and clouds: 1. Theoretical formulation, J. Geophys. Res., 115, B09201, doi: 10.1029/2009JB007175.
31. Criswell, C. W., (1987), Chronology and pyroclastic stratigraphy of the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, J. Geophys. Res., 92 (B10), 10,237-10,266, doi: 10.1029/JB092iB10p10237.
32. Degruyter, W., and, C. Bonadonna, (2012), Improving on mass flow rate estimates of volcanic eruptions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L16308, doi: 10.1029/2012GL052566.
33. Druitt, T. H., (1992), Emplacement of the 18 May 1980 lateral blast deposit ENE of Mount St. Helens, Washington, Bull. Volcanol., 54 (7), 554-572.
34. Dufek, J., and, M. Manga, (2008), In situ production of ash in pyroclastic flows, J. Geophys. Res., 113, B09207, doi: 10.1029/2007JB005555.
35. Durant, A. J., (2015), RESEARCH FOCUS: Toward a realistic formulation of fine-ash lifetime in volcanic clouds, Geology, 43 (3), 271-272.
36. Durant, A. J., and, W. I. Rose, (2009), Sedimentological constraints on hydrometeor-enhanced particle deposition: 1992 eruptions of Crater Peak, Alaska, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 186 (1-2), 40-59.
37. Durant, A. J., R. A. Shaw, W. I. Rose, Y. Mi, and, G. G. J. Ernst, (2008), Ice nucleation and overseeding of ice in volcanic clouds, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D09206, doi: 10.1029/2007JD009064.
38. Durant, A. J., W. I. Rose, A. M. Sarna-Wojcicki, S. Carey, and, A. C. M. Volentik, (2009), Hydrometeor-enhanced tephra sedimentation: Constraints from the 18 May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, J. Geophys. Res., 114, B03204, doi: 10.1029/2008JB005756.
39. Engwell, S. L., J. Eychenne, S. Wulf, and, M. de Michieli Vitturi, (2014a), The characteristics of co-ignimbrite deposits and inferences for their formation, In: AGU (Editor), Abstract V21B-4757 presented at 2014a AGU Fall Meeting, San Francisco, Calif.
40. Engwell, S. L., R. S. J. Sparks, and, S. Carey, (2014b), Physical Characteristics of Tephra Layers in the Deep Sea Realm: The Campanian Ignimbrite Eruption, Geol. Soc. London Spec. Publ, vol. 398.
41. Esposti Ongaro, T., C. Widiwijayanti, A. B. Clarke, B. Voight, and, A. Neri, (2011), Multiphase-flow numerical modeling of the 18 May 1980 lateral blast at Mount St. Helens, USA, Geology, 39 (6), 535-538.
42. Eychenne, J., J.-L. Pennec, L. Troncoso, M. Gouhier, and, J.-M. Nedelec, (2012), Causes and consequences of bimodal grain-size distribution of tephra fall deposited during the August 2006 Tungurahua eruption (Ecuador), Bull. Volcanol., 74 (1), 187-205.
43. Farlow, N. H., V. R. Oberbeck, K. G. Snetsinger, G. V. Ferry, G. Polkowski, and, D. M. Hayes, (1981), Size distributions and mineralogy of ash particles in the stratosphere from eruptions of Mount St. Helens, Science, 211 (4484), 832-834.
44. Fero, J., S. N. Carey, and, J. T. Merrill, (2008), Simulation of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens using the ash-tracking model PUFF, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 175 (3), 355-366.
45. Fisher, R., (1964), Maximum size, median diameter, and sorting of tephra, J. Geophys. Res., 69 (2), 341-355, doi: 10.1029/JZ069i002p00341.
46. Flentje, H., H. Claude, T. Elste, S. Gilge, U. Köhler, C. Plass-Dülmer, W. Steinbrecht, W. Thomas, A. Werner, and, W. Fricke, (2010), The Eyjafjallajökull eruption in April 2010-Detection of volcanic plume using in-situ measurements, ozone sondes and lidar-ceilometer profiles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10 (20), 10,085-10,092.
47. Folch, A., A. Costa, A. Durant, and, G. Macedonio, (2010), A model for wet aggregation of ash particles in volcanic plumes and clouds: 2. Model application, J. Geophys. Res., 115, B09202, doi: 10.1029/2009JB007176.
48. Folk, R. L., (1966), A review of grain-size parameters, Sedimentology, 6, 73-93.
49. Folk, R. L., and, W. C. Ward, (1957), Brazos River Bar: A study of the significance of grain size parameters, J. Sediment. Petrol., 27, 3-26.
50. Genareau, K., G. Mulukutla, A. Proussevitch, A. Durant, W. Rose, and, D. Sahagian, (2013), The size range of bubbles that produce ash during explosive volcanic eruptions, J. Appl. Volcanol., 2 (4), doi: 10.1186/2191-5040-2-4.
51. Gilbert, J. S., and, S. J. Lane, (1994), The origin of accretionary lapilli, Bull. Volcanol., 56 (5), 398-411.
52. Gislason, S. R., et al., (2011), Characterization of Eyjafjallajökull volcanic ash particles and a protocol for rapid risk assessment, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 108 (18), 7307-7312.
53. Glicken, H., (1990), The rockslide-Debris avalanche of the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens-10th anniversary perspectives, Geosci. Canada, 17, 150-153.
54. Guéhenneux, Y., M. Gouhier, and, P. Labazuy, (2015), Improved space borne detection of volcanic ash for real-time monitoring using 3-Band method, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 293, 25-45.
55. Harris, D. M., W. I. Rose, R. Roe, and, M. R. Thompson, (1981), Radar Observations of Ash Eruptions, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., vol. 1250, pp. 323-334.
56. Hobbs, P. V., L. F. Radke, M. W. Eltgroth, and, D. A. Hegg, (1981), Airborne studies of the emissions from the volcanic eruptions of Mount St. Helens, Science, 211, 816-818.
57. Hobbs, P. V., J. P. Tuell, D. A. Hegg, L. F. Radke, and, M. W. Eltgroth, (1982), Particles and gases in the emissions from the 1980-1981 volcanic eruptions of Mount St. Helens, J. Geophys. Res., 87 (C13), 11,062-11,086, doi: 10.1029/JC087iC13p11062.
58. Hoblitt, R. P., (2000), Was the 18 May 1980 lateral blast at Mt St Helens the product of two explosions?, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, 358, 1639-1661.
59. Hoblitt, R. P., and, R. S. Harmon, (1993), Bimodal density distribution of cryptodome dacite from the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, Bull. Volcanol., 55, 421-437.
60. Hoblitt, R. P., C. D. Miller, and, J. W. Vallance, (1981), Origin and Stratigraphy of the Deposit Produced by the May 18 Directed Blast, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., vol. 1250, pp. 401-420.
61. Holasek, R. E., and, S. Self, (1995), GOES weather satellite observations and measurements of the May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens eruption, J. Geophys. Res., 100 (B5), 8469-8487, doi: 10.1029/94JB03137.
62. Hooper, P. R., I. W. Herrick, E. R. Laskowski, and, C. R. Knowles, (1980), Composition of the Mount St. Helens ashfall in the Moscow-Pullman area on 18 May 1980, Science, 209 (4461), 1125-1126.
63. Hopkins, A. T., and, C. J. Bridgman, (1985), A volcanic ash transport model and analysis of Mount St. Helens ashfall, J. Geophys. Res., 90 (D6), 10,620-10,630, doi: 10.1029/JD090iD06p10620.
64. Ikramuddin, M., S. J. M. Digby, and, A. R. Buehler, (1982), Chemical composition of the Mount St. Helens ash from the 18 May eruption, in Proceedings, Mount St. Helens: One Year Later, edited by, S. A. C. Keller, pp. 27-32, Eastern Washington Univ. Press, Cheney.
65. Johnson, B., et al., (2012), In situ observations of volcanic ash clouds from the FAAM aircraft during the eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D00U24, doi: 10.1029/2011JD016760.
66. Kaminski, E., and, C. Jaupart, (1998), The size distribution of pyroclasts and the fragmentation sequence in explosive volcanic eruptions, J. Geophys. Res., 103 (B12), 29,759-29,779, doi: 10.1029/98JB02795.
67. Kieffer, S. W., (1981), Fluid Dynamics of the May 18 Blast at Mount St. Helens, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., vol. 1250, pp. 379-400.
68. Klug, C., and, K. V. Cashman, (1994), Vesiculation of May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens magma, Geology, 22, 468-472.
69. Koyaguchi, T., (1994), Grain-size variation of tephra derived from volcanic umbrella clouds, Bull. Volcanol., 56 (1), 1-9.
70. Kueppers, U., D. Perugini, and, D. B. Dingwell, (2006), "Explosive energy" during volcanic eruptions from fractal analysis of pyroclasts, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 248 (3-4), 800-807.
71. Kueppers, U., C. Cimarelli, K.-U. Hess, J. Taddeucci, F. Wadsworth, and, D. Dingwell, (2014), The thermal stability of Eyjafjallajokull ash versus turbine ingestion test sands, J. Appl. Volcanol., 3 (1), 4.
72. Kuntz, M. A., P. D. Rowley, N. S. Macleod, R. L. Reynolds, L. A. McBroome, A. M. Kaplan, and, D. J. Lidke, (1981), Petrography and Particle-Size Distribution of Pyroclastic-Flow, Ash-Cloud, and Surge Deposits, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., vol. 1250, pp. 525-540.
73. Labazuy, P., M. Gouhier, A. Harris, Y. Guéhenneux, M. Hervo, J. C. Bergès, P. Fréville, P. Cacault, and, S. Rivet, (2012), Near real-time monitoring of the April-May 2010 Eyjafjallajökull ash cloud: An example of a web-based, satellite data-driven, reporting system, Int. J. Environ. Pollut., 48 (1), 262-272.
74. Mackie, S., and, M. Watson, (2014), Probabilistic detection of volcanic ash using a Bayesian approach, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 119, 2409-2428, doi: 10.1002/2013JD021077.
75. Manga, M., A. Patel, and, J. Dufek, (2011), Rounding of pumice clasts during transport: Field measurements and laboratory studies, Bull. Volcanol., 73 (3), 321-333.
76. Manzella, I., C. Bonadonna, J. C. Phillips, and, H. Monnard, (2015), The role of gravitational instabilities in deposition of volcanic ash, Geology, 43, 211-214.
77. Mastin, L. G., et al., (2009), A multidisciplinary effort to assign realistic source parameters to models of volcanic ash-cloud transport and dispersion during eruptions, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 186 (1-2), 10-21.
78. Mastin, L. G., A. R. Van Eaton, and, J. B. Lowenstern, (2014), Modeling ash fall distribution from a Yellowstone supereruption, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 15, 3459-3475, doi: 10.1002/2014GC005469.
79. Moore, J. G., and, C. J. Rice, (1984), Chronology and character of the May 18, 1980, explosive eruptions of Mount St. Helens, in Explosive Volcanism, Inception, Evolution, and Hazards, pp. 133-142, Natl. Acad. Sci. Press, Washington, D. C.
80. Moore, J. G., and, T. W. Sisson, (1981), Deposits and Effects of the May 18 Pyroclastic Surge, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., vol. 1250, pp. 421-438.
81. Muir, D. D., J. D. Blundy, and, A. C. Rust, (2012), Multiphase petrography of volcanic rocks using element maps: A method applied to Mount St. Helens, 1980-2005, Bull. Volcanol., 74 (5), 1101-1120.
82. Pouget, S., M. Bursik, P. Webley, J. Dehn, and, M. Pavolonis, (2013), Estimation of eruption source parameters from umbrella cloud or downwind plume growth rate, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 258, 100-112.
83. Pyle, D. M., (1989), The thickness, volume and grainsize of tephra fall deposits, Bull. Volcanol., 51, 1-15.
84. Quinn, R. R., (1982), Variations in atmospheric circulation, Mount St. Helens eruption, 1980, in Proceedings: Mount St. Helens, One Year Later, edited by, S. A. C. Keller, pp. 71-78, Eastren Washington Univ. Press, Cheney.
85. Rice, C. J., (1981), Satellite observations of the Mount St. Helens eruption of 18 May 1980, Proc. SPIE Int. Soc. Opt. Eng., 278, 23-31.
86. Rose, W., and, A. Durant, (2009), Fine ash content of explosive eruptions, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 186, 32-39.
87. Rose, W., D. Harris, G. Heiken, A. Sarna-Wojcicki, and, S. Self, (1982), Volcanological description of the 18 May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Mount St. Helens eruptions of 1980: Atmospheric effects and potential climatic impact: 1-36.
88. Rose, W. I., (1993), Comment on 'another look at the calculation of fallout tephra volumes' by Judy Fierstein and Manuel Nathenson, Bull. Volcanol., 55 (5), 372-374.
89. Rosenbaum, J. G., and, R. B. Waitt, (1981), Summary of Eye-Witness Accounts of the May 18 Eruption, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., vol. 1250, pp. 53-68.
90. Rowley, P. D., M. A. Kuntz, and, N. S. Macleod, (1981), Pyroclastic-Flow Deposits, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., vol. 1250, pp. 489-512.
91. Rust, A. C., and, K. V. Cashman, (2011), Permeability controls on expansion and size distributions of pyroclasts, J. Geophys. Res., 116, B11202, doi: 10.1029/2011JB008494.
92. Rutherford, M. J., H. Sigurdsson, S. Carey, and, A. Davis, (1985), The May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens: 1. Melt composition and experimental phase equilibria, J. Geophys. Res., 90 (B4), 2929-2947, doi: 10.1029/JB090iB04p02929.
93. Sarna-Wojcicki, A., S. Shipley, R. B. Waitt, D. Dzurisin, and, S. Wood, (1981), Aerial Distribution, Thickness, Mass, Volume and Grain Size of Air-Fall Ash From the Six Major Eruptions of 1980, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., vol. 1250, pp. 577-600.
94. Scandone, R., K. V. Cashman, and, S. D. Malone, (2007), Magma supply, magma ascent and the style of volcanic eruptions, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 253 (3-4), 513-529.
95. Scheidegger, K. F., A. N. Federman, and, A. M. Tallman, (1982), Compositional heterogeneity of tephras from the 1980 eruptions of Mount St. Helens, J. Geophys. Res., 87 (B13), 10,861-10,881, doi: 10.1029/JB087iB13p10861.
96. Schultz, D. M., et al., (2006), The mysteries of mammatus clouds: Observations and formation mechanisms, J. Atmos. Sci., 63 (10), 2409-2435.
97. Schumacher, R., (1994), A reappraisal of Mount St. Helens' ash clusters-Depositional model from experimental observation, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 59 (3), 253-260.
98. Sorem, R. K., (1982), Volcanic ash clusters: Tephra rafts and scavengers, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 13 (1-2), 63-71.
99. Sparks, R. S. J., and, T. C. Huang, (1980), The volcanological significance of deep-sea ash layers associated with ignimbrites, Geol. Mag., 117, 425-436.
100. Sparks, R. S. J., and, G. P. L. Walker, (1977), The significance of vitric-enriched air-fall ashes associated with crystal-enriched ignimbrites, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 2, 329-341.
101. Sparks, R. S. J., S. Self, and, G. P. L. Walker, (1973), Products of ignimbrite eruptions, Geology, 1 (3), 115-118.
102. Sparks, R. S. J., S. Brazier, T. C. Huang, and, D. Muerdter, (1984), Sedimentology of the Minoan deep-sea tephra layer in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean, Mar. Geol., 54, 131-167.
103. Sparks, R. S. J., J. G. Moore, and, C. J. Rice, (1986), The initial giant umbrella cloud of the May 18th, 1980, explosive eruption of Mount St. Helens, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 28, 257-274.
104. Sparks, R. S. J., M. I. Bursik, G. J. Ablay, R. M. E. Thomas, and, S. N. Carey, (1992), Sedimentation of tephra by volcanic plumes. Part 2: Controls on thickness and grain-size variations of tephra fall deposits, Bull. Volcanol., 54 (8), 685-695.
105. Sparks, R. S. J., M. I. Bursik, S. N. Carey, J. S. Gilbert, L. S. Glaze, H. Sigurdsson, and, A. W. Woods, (1997), Volcanic Plumes, John Wiley, Chichester.
106. Stevenson, J. A., S. C. Millington, F. M. Beckett, G. T. Swindles, and, T. Thordarson, (2015), Big grains go far: Reconciling tephrochronology with atmospheric measurements of volcanic ash, Atmos. Meas. Tech. Discuss., 8 (1), 65-120.
107. Stohl, A., et al., (2011), Determination of time- and height-resolved volcanic ash emissions and their use for quantitative ash dispersion modeling: The 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 4333-4351.
108. Stoiber, R. E., S. N. Williams, L. L. Malinconico Jr., D. A. Johnston, and, T. J. Casadevall, (1981), Mt. St. Helens: Evidence of increased magmatic gas component, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 11 (2-4), 203-212.
109. Taddeucci, J., and, D. M. Palladino, (2002), Particle size-density relationships in pyroclastic deposits: Inferences for emplacement processes, Bull. Volcanol., 64 (3-4), 273-284.
110. Van Eaton, A., J. Muirhead, C. N. Wilson, and, C. Cimarelli, (2012), Growth of volcanic ash aggregates in the presence of liquid water and ice: An experimental approach, Bull. Volcanol., 74 (9), 1963-1984.
111. Voight, B., (1981), Time Scale for the First Moments of the May 18 Eruption, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., vol. 1250, pp. 69-86.
112. Waitt, R. B., (2015), In the Path of Destruction: Eyewitness Chronicles of Mount St. Helens, 413 pp., Washington State Univ. Press, Pullman.
113. Waitt, R. B., and, D. Dzurisin, (1981), Proximal Air-Fall Deposits From the May 18 Eruption-Stratigraphy and Field Sedimentology, U.S. Geol. Surv. Profes. Pap., vol. 1250, pp. 601-616.
114. Wiesner, M. G., A. Wetzel, S. G. Catane, E. L. Listanco, and, H. T. Mirabueno, (2004), Grain size, areal thickness distribution and controls on sedimentation of the 1991 Mount Pinatubo tephra layer in the South China Sea, Bull. Volcanol., 66 (3), 226-242.
115. Witham, C. S., M. C. Hort, R. Potts, R. Servranckx, P. Husson, and, F. Bonnardot, (2007), Comparison of VAAC atmospheric dispersion models using the 1 November 2004 Grimsvötn eruption, Meteorol. Appl., 14 (1), 27-38.
116. Wohletz, K. H., M. F. Sheridan, and, W. K. Brown, (1989), Particle size distributions and the sequential fragmentation/transport theory applied to volcanic ash, J. Geophys. Res., 94 (B11), 15,703-15,721, doi: 10.1029/JB094iB11p15703.
117. Woodhouse, M. J., A. J. Hogg, J. C. Phillips, and, R. S. J. Sparks, (2013), Interaction between volcanic plumes and wind during the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption, Iceland, J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 118, 92-109, doi: 10.1029/2012JB009592.