Epidemiology and clinical presentation of medullary thyroid carcinoma

Recent Results in Cancer Research

Volumn 204, Issue , 2015, Pages 61-90

  Raue, Friedhelm ^a   Frank Raue, Karin ^a  

^a Endokrinologische Gemeinschaftspraxis   (Germany)

Author keywords

Calcitonin; Medullary thyroid carcinomac; Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2; RET proto oncogene

Indexed keywords

ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCITONIN; CARCINOEMBRYONIC ANTIGEN; LEVOTHYROXINE; TUMOR MARKER;

ADRENALECTOMY; ARTICLE; CANCER CLASSIFICATION; CANCER STAGING; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DNA DETERMINATION; ECHOGRAPHY; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; FAMILY HISTORY; FINE NEEDLE ASPIRATION BIOPSY; GENE MUTATION; HEREDITARY MEDULLARY THYROID CARCINOMA; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; LYMPH NODE DISSECTION; MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA TYPE 2; MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA TYPE 2A; MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA TYPE 2B; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; ONCOGENE RET; PATHOGENESIS; PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA; POSTOPERATIVE CARE; PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; SOMATIC MUTATION; SPORADIC MEDULLARY THYROID CARCINOMA; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; THYROID MEDULLARY CARCINOMA; THYROIDECTOMY; CARCINOMA, NEUROENDOCRINE; CYTODIAGNOSIS; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETICS; METABOLISM; PHENOTYPE; PREDICTIVE VALUE; THYROID NEOPLASMS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

BIOMARKERS, TUMOR; CARCINOMA, NEUROENDOCRINE; CYTODIAGNOSIS; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA TYPE 2A; MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA TYPE 2B; NEOPLASM STAGING; PHENOTYPE; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; THYROID NEOPLASMS; THYROIDECTOMY; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84944909595     PISSN: 00800015     EISSN: 21976767     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-22542-5_3     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. Agrawal N, Jiao Y, Sausen M, Leary R, Bettegowda C, Roberts NJ et al (2013) Exomic sequencing of medullary thyroid cancer reveals dominant and mutually exclusive oncogenic mutations in RET and RAS. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98(2):E364-E369
2. Ahmed SR, Ball DW (2011) Clinical review: incidentally discovered medullary thyroid cancer: diagnostic strategies and treatment. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96(5):1237-1245
3. Ahn JE, Lee JH, Yi JS, Shong YK, Hong SJ, Lee DH et al (2008) Diagnostic accuracy of CT and ultrasonography for evaluating metastatic cervical lymph nodes in patients with thyroid cancer. World J Surg 32(7):1552-1558
4. Algeciras-Schimnich A, Milosevic D, McIver B, Flynn H, Reddi HV, Eberhardt NL et al (2010) Evaluation of the PAX8/PPARG translocation in follicular thyroid cancer with a 4-color reverse-transcription PCR assay and automated high-resolution fragment analysis. Clin Chem 56(3):391-398
5. Barbet J, Campion L, Kraeber-Bodere F, Chatal JF (2005) Group GTES. prognostic impact of serum calcitonin and carcinoembryonic antigen doubling-times in patients with medullary thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90(11):6077-6084
6. Barbosa SL, Rodien P, Leboulleux S, Niccoli-Sire P, Kraimps JL, Caron P et al (2005) Ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone-syndrome in medullary carcinoma of the thyroid: a retrospective analysis and review of the literature. Thyroid 15(6):618-623 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
7. Basuyau JP, Mallet E, Leroy M, Brunelle P (2004) Reference intervals for serum calcitonin in men, women, and children. Clin Chem 50(10):1828-1830
8. Becker KL, Nylen ES, White JC, Muller B, Snider RH Jr (2004) Clinical review 167: procalcitonin and the calcitonin gene family of peptides in inflammation, infection, and sepsis: a journey from calcitonin back to its precursors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89(4):1512-1525
9. Bhanot P, Yang J, Schnadig VJ, Logrono R (2007) Role of FNA cytology and immunochemistry in the diagnosis and management of medullary thyroid carcinoma: report of six cases and review of the literature. Diagn Cytopathol 35(5):285-292
10. Biddinger PW, Brennan MF, Rosen PP (1991) Symptomatic C-cell hyperplasia associated with chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis. Am J Surg Pathol 15(6):599-604
11. Blind E, Raue F, Klaiber T, Zink A, Schroth J, Buhr H et al (1992a) Evaluation of sensitive PDN-21 (katacalcin) determination as tumor marker in medullary thyroid carcinoma. J Endocrinol Invest 15(2):93-98
12. Blind E, Schmidt-Gayk H, Sinn HP, O’Connor DT, Raue F (1992b) Chromogranin A as tumor marker in medullary thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid 2(1):5-10 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
13. Bockhorn M, Frilling A, Rewerk S, Liedke M, Dirsch O, Schmid KW et al (2004) Lack of elevated serum carcinoembryonic antigen and calcitonin in medullary thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid 14(6):468-470 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
14. Boichard A, Croux L, Al Ghuzlan A, Broutin S, Dupuy C, Leboulleux S et al (2012) Somatic RAS mutations occur in a large proportion of sporadic RET-negative medullary thyroid carcinomas and extend to a previously unidentified exon. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97(10):E2031-E2035
15. Brauckhoff M, Gimm O, Brauckhoff K, Ukkat J, Thomusch O, Dralle H (2001) Calcitonin kinetics in the early postoperative period of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Langenbeck’s Arch Surg/Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Chirurgie 386(6):434-439
16. Brauckhoff M, Machens A, Thanh PN, Lorenz K, Schmeil A, Stratmann M et al (2010) Impact of extent of resection for thyroid cancer invading the aerodigestive tract on surgical morbidity, local recurrence, and cancer-specific survival. Surgery 148(6):1257-1266
17. Brunt LM, Doherty GM, Norton JA, Soper NJ, Quasebarth MA, Moley JF (1996) Laparoscopic adrenalectomy compared to open adrenalectomy for benign adrenal neoplasms. J Am Coll Surg 183(1):1-10
18. Bugalho MJ, Mendonca E, Sobrinho LG (2000) Medullary thyroid carcinoma: an accurate pre-operative diagnosis by reverse transcription-PCR. Eur J Endocrinol/Eur Fed Endocr Soc 143(3):335-338
19. Bugalho MJ, Santos JR, Sobrinho L (2005) Preoperative diagnosis of medullary thyroid carcinoma: fine needle aspiration cytology as compared with serum calcitonin measurement. J Surg Oncol 91(1):56-60
20. Busnardo B, Girelli ME, Simioni N, Nacamulli D, Busetto E (1984) Nonparallel patterns of calcitonin and carcinoembryonic antigen levels in the follow-up of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Cancer 53(2):278-285
21. Camacho CP, Lindsey SC, Melo MC, Yang JH, Germano-Neto F, Valente Fde O et al (2013) Measurement of calcitonin and calcitonin gene-related peptide mRNA refines the management of patients with medullary thyroid cancer and may replace calcitonin-stimulation tests. Thyroid 23(3):308-316 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
22. Chambon G, Alovisetti C, Idoux-Louche C, Reynaud C, Rodier M, Guedj AM et al (2011) The use of preoperative routine measurement of basal serum thyrocalcitonin in candidates for thyroidectomy due to nodular thyroid disorders: results from 2733 consecutive patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96(1):75-81
23. Ciampi R, Mian C, Fugazzola L, Cosci B, Romei C, Barollo S et al (2013) Evidence of a low prevalence of RAS mutations in a large medullary thyroid cancer series. Thyroid 23(1):50-57 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
24. Cohen R, Campos JM, Salaun C, Heshmati HM, Kraimps JL, Proye C et al (2000) Preoperative calcitonin levels are predictive of tumor size and postoperative calcitonin normalization in medullary thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85(2):919-922. (Groupe d’Etudes desTumeurs a Calcitonine (GETC))
25. Cohen EG, Shaha AR, Rinaldo A, Devaney KO, Ferlito A (2004) Medullary thyroid carcinoma. Acta Otolaryngol 124(5):544-557
26. Colombo C, Verga U, Mian C, Ferrero S, Perrino M, Vicentini L et al (2012) Comparison of calcium and pentagastrin tests for the diagnosis and follow-up of medullary thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97(3):905-913
27. Colonna M, Guizard AV, Schvartz C, Velten M, Raverdy N, Molinie F et al (2007) A time trend analysis of papillary and follicular cancers as a function of tumour size: a study of data from six cancer registries in France (1983-2000). Eur J Cancer 43(5):891-900
28. Costante G, Meringolo D, Durante C, Bianchi D, Nocera M, Tumino S et al (2007) Predictive value of serum calcitonin levels for preoperative diagnosis of medullary thyroid carcinoma in a cohort of 5817 consecutive patients with thyroid nodules. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92(2):450-455
29. Davies L, Welch HG (2006) Increasing incidence of thyroid cancer in the United States, 1973-2002. JAMA 295(18):2164-2167
30. de Groot JW, Links TP, Plukker JT, Lips CJ, Hofstra RM (2006) RET as a diagnostic and therapeutic target in sporadic and hereditary endocrine tumors. Endocr Rev 27(5):535-560
31. Donis-Keller H, Dou S, Chi D, Carlson KM, Toshima K, Lairmore TC et al (1993) Mutations in the RET proto-oncogene are associated with MEN 2A and FMTC. Hum Mol Genet 2(7):851-856
32. Dora JM, Canalli MH, Capp C, Punales MK, Vieira JG, Maia AL (2008) Normal perioperative serum calcitonin levels in patients with advanced medullary thyroid carcinoma: case report and review of the literature. Thyroid 18(8):895-899 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
33. Doyle P, Duren C, Nerlich K, Verburg FA, Grelle I, Jahn H et al (2009) Potency and tolerance of calcitonin stimulation with high-dose calcium versus pentagastrin in normal adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94(8):2970-2974
34. Edge SB, Byrd DR, Compton CC (2010) American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) cancer staging manual, 7th edn. Springer, New York
35. Elisei R, Pinchera A (2012) Advances in the follow-up of differentiated or medullary thyroid cancer. Nat Rev Endocrinol 8(8):466-475
36. Elisei R, Bottici V, Luchetti F, Di Coscio G, Romei C, Grasso L et al (2004) Impact of routine measurement of serum calcitonin on the diagnosis and outcome of medullary thyroid cancer: experience in 10,864 patients with nodular thyroid disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89 (1):163-168
37. Elisei R, Romei C, Cosci B, Agate L, Bottici V, Molinaro E et al (2007) RET genetic screening in patients with medullary thyroid cancer and their relatives: experience with 807 individuals at one center. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92(12):4725-4729
38. Elisei R, Cosci B, Romei C, Bottici V, Renzini G, Molinaro E et al (2008) Prognostic significance of somatic RET oncogene mutations in sporadic medullary thyroid cancer: a 10-year follow-up study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93(3):682-687
39. Eng C, Smith DP, Mulligan LM, Nagai MA, Healey CS, Ponder MA et al (1994) Point mutation within the tyrosine kinase domain of the RET proto-oncogene in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B and related sporadic tumours. Hum Mol Genet 3(2):237-241
40. Eng C, Mulligan LM, Smith DP, Healey CS, Frilling A, Raue F et al (1995) Mutation of the RET protooncogene in sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma. Genes Chromosom Cancer 12 (3):209-212
41. Eng C, Mulligan LM, Healey CS, Houghton C, Frilling A, Raue F et al (1996) Heterogeneous mutation of the RET proto-oncogene in subpopulations of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Cancer Res 56(9):2167-2170
42. Engelbach M, Gorges R, Forst T, Pfutzner A, Dawood R, Heerdt S et al (2000) Improved diagnostic methods in the follow-up of medullary thyroid carcinoma by highly specificcalcitonin measurements. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85(5):1890-1894
43. Etit D, Faquin WC, Gaz R, Randolph G, DeLellis RA, Pilch BZ (2008) Histopathologic andclinical features of medullary microcarcinoma and C-cell hyperplasia in prophylactic thyroidectomies for medullary carcinoma: a study of 42 cases. Arch Pathol Lab Med 132(11):1767-1773
44. Forrest CH, Frost FA, de Boer WB, Spagnolo DV, Whitaker D, Sterrett BF (1998) Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid: accuracy of diagnosis of fine-needle aspiration cytology. Cancer 84(5):295-302
45. Frank-Raue K, Bihl H, Dorr U, Buhr H, Ziegler R, Raue F (1995) Somatostatin receptor imaging in persistent medullary thyroid carcinoma. Clin Endocrinol 42(1):31-37
46. Frank-Raue K, Buhr H, Dralle H, Klar E, Senninger N, Weber T et al (2006) Long-term outcome in 46 gene carriers of hereditary medullary thyroid carcinoma after prophylactic thyroidectomy: impact of individual RET genotype. Eur J Endocrinol/Eur Fed Endocr Soc 155(2):229-236
47. Frank-Raue K, Machens A, Leidig-Bruckner G, Rondot S, Haag C, Schulze E et al (2013) Prevalence and clinical spectrum of nonsecretory medullary thyroid carcinoma in a series of 839 patients with sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid 23(3):294-300 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
48. Gimm O, Marsh DJ, Andrew SD, Frilling A, Dahia PL, Mulligan LM et al (1997) Germline dinucleotide mutation in codon 883 of the RET proto-oncogene in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B without codon 918 mutation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82(11):3902-3904
49. Giraudet AL, Vanel D, Leboulleux S, Auperin A, Dromain C, Chami L et al (2007) Imaging medullary thyroid carcinoma with persistent elevated calcitonin levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92(11):4185-4190
50. Giraudet AL, Al Ghulzan A, Auperin A, Leboulleux S, Chehboun A, Troalen F et al (2008) Progression of medullary thyroid carcinoma: assessment with calcitonin and carcinoembryonic antigen doubling times. Eur J Endocrinol/Eur Fed Endocr Soc 158(2):239-46
51. Grauer A, Raue F, Rix E, Tschahargane C, Ziegler R (1987) Neuron-specific enolase in medullary thyroid carcinoma: immunohistochemical demonstration, but no significance as serum tumor marker. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 113(6):599-602
52. Grauer A, Schroth J, Ziegler R, Raue F (1995) Evaluation of somatostatin as a plasma tumor marker in medullary thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid 5(4):287-291 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
53. Guyetant S, Rousselet MC, Durigon M, Chappard D, Franc B, Guerin O et al (1997) Sex-related C cell hyperplasia in the normal human thyroid: a quantitative autopsy study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82(1):42-47
54. Hahm JR, Lee MS, Min YK, Lee MK, Kim KW, Nam SJ et al (2001) Routine measurement of serum calcitonin is useful for early detection of medullary thyroid carcinoma in patients with nodular thyroid diseases. Thyroid 11(1):73-80 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
55. Hasselgren M, Hegedus L, Godballe C, Bonnema SJ (2010) Benefit of measuring basal serum calcitonin to detect medullary thyroid carcinoma in a Danish population with a high prevalence of thyroid nodules. Head Neck 32(5):612-618
56. Hazard JB, Hawk WA, Crile G Jr (1959) Medullary (solid) carcinoma of the thyroid; a clinicopathologic entity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 19(1):152-161
57. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, Murray T, Xu J, Thun MJ (2007) Cancer statistics, 2007. CA Cancer J Clin 57(1):43-66
58. Karanikas G, Moameni A, Poetzi C, Zettinig G, Kaserer K, Bieglmayer C et al (2004) Frequency and relevance of elevated calcitonin levels in patients with neoplastic and nonneoplastic thyroid disease and in healthy subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89(2):515-519
59. Khurana R, Agarwal A, Bajpai VK, Verma N, Sharma AK, Gupta RP et al (2004) Unraveling the amyloid associated with human medullary thyroid carcinoma. Endocrinology 145(12):5465-5470
60. Kim SH, Kim BS, Jung SL, Lee JW, Yang PS, Kang BJ et al (2009) Ultrasonographic findings of medullary thyroid carcinoma: a comparison with papillary thyroid carcinoma. Korean J Radiol 10(2):101-105 (official journal of the Korean Radiological Society)
61. Kouvaraki MA, Shapiro SE, Perrier ND, Cote GJ, Gagel RF, Hoff AO et al (2005) RET proto-oncogene: a review and update of genotype-phenotype correlations in hereditary medullary thyroid cancer and associated endocrine tumors. Thyroid 15(6):531-544 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
62. Kraimps JL, Denizot A, Carnaille B, Henry JF, Proye C, Bacourt F et al (1996) Primary hyperparathyroidism in multiple endocrine neoplasia type IIa: retrospective French multicentric study. Groupe d’Etude des Tumeurs a Calcitonine (GETC, French Calcitonin Tumors Study Group), French Association of Endocrine Surgeons. World J Surg 20(7):808-812; discussion 12-3
63. Kratzsch J, Petzold A, Raue F, Reinhardt W, Brocker-Preuss M, Gorges R et al (2011) Basal and stimulated calcitonin and procalcitonin by various assays in patients with and without medullary thyroid cancer. Clin Chem 57(3):467-474
64. Kudo T, Miyauchi A, Ito Y, Takamura Y, Amino N, Hirokawa M (2007) Diagnosis of medullary thyroid carcinoma by calcitonin measurement in fine-needle aspiration biopsy specimens. Thyroid 17(7): 635-638 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
65. Lee S, Shin JH, Han BK, Ko EY (2010) Medullary thyroid carcinoma: comparison with papillary thyroid carcinoma and application of current sonographic criteria. AJR Am J Roentgenol 194 (4):1090-1094
66. LiVolsi VA, Feind CR, LoGerfo P, Tashjian AH Jr (1973) Demonstration by immunoperoxidase staining of hyperplasia of parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland in hyperparathyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 37(4):550-559
67. Lorenz K, Elwerr M, Machens A, Abuazab M, Holzhausen HJ, Dralle H (2013) Hypercalcitoninemia in thyroid conditions other than medullary thyroid carcinoma: a comparative analysis of calcium and pentagastrin stimulation of serum calcitonin. Langenbeck’s Arch Surg/Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Chirurgie 398(3):403-409
68. Machens A, Dralle H (2010a) Biomarker-based risk stratification for previously untreated medullary thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95(6):2655-2663
69. Machens A, Dralle H (2010b) Decreasing tumor size of thyroid cancer in Germany: institutional experience 1995-2009. Eur J Endocrinol/Eur Fed Endocr Soc 163(1):111-119
70. Machens A, Dralle H (2012) Biological relevance of medullary thyroid microcarcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97(5):1547-1553
71. Machens A, Dralle H (2013) Benefit-risk balance of reoperation for persistent medullary thyroid cancer. Ann Surg 257(4):751-757
72. Machens A, Haedecke J, Holzhausen HJ, Thomusch O, Schneyer U, Dralle H (2000) Differential diagnosis of calcitonin-secreting neuroendocrine carcinoma of the foregut by pentagastrin stimulation. Langenbeck’s Arch Surg/Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Chirurgie 385(6):398-401
73. Machens A, Hinze R, Thomusch O, Dralle H (2002) Pattern of nodal metastasis for primary and reoperative thyroid cancer. World J Surg 26(1):22-28
74. Machens A, Niccoli-Sire P, Hoegel J, Frank-Raue K, van Vroonhoven TJ, Roeher HD et al (2003) Early malignant progression of hereditary medullary thyroid cancer. N Engl J Med 349 (16):1517-1525
75. Machens A, Ukkat J, Hauptmann S, Dralle H (2007) Abnormal carcinoembryonic antigen levels and medullary thyroid cancer progression: a multivariate analysis. Archives of surgery 142(3):289-293; discussion 94
76. Machens A, Hauptmann S, Dralle H (2008) Medullary thyroid cancer responsiveness to pentagastrin stimulation: an early surrogate parameter of tumor dissemination? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93(6):2234-2238
77. Machens A, Hoffmann F, Sekulla C, Dralle H (2009) Importance of gender-specific calcitonin thresholds in screening for occult sporadic medullary thyroid cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 16 (4):1291-1298
78. Machens A, Lorenz K, Dralle H (2014) Utility of serum procalcitonin for screening and risk stratification of medullary thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99(8):2986-2994
79. Margraf RL, Crockett DK, Krautscheid PM, Seamons R, Calderon FR, Wittwer CT et al (2009) Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 RET protooncogene database: repository of MEN2-associated RET sequence variation and reference for genotype/phenotype correlations. Hum Mutat 30(4):548-556
80. Marsh DJ, Andrew SD, Eng C, Learoyd DL, Capes AG, Pojer R et al (1996) Germline and somatic mutations in an oncogene: RET mutations in inherited medullary thyroid carcinoma. Cancer Res 56(6):1241-1243
81. Mathew CG, Chin KS, Easton DF, Thorpe K, Carter C, Liou GI et al (1987) A linked genetic marker for multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A on chromosome 10. Nature 328(6130):527-528
82. Meijer JA, le Cessie S, van den Hout WB, Kievit J, Schoones JW, Romijn JA et al (2010) Calcitonin and carcinoembryonic antigen doubling times as prognostic factors in medullary thyroid carcinoma: a structured meta-analysis. Clin Endocrinol 72(4):534-542
83. Mendelsohn G, Wells SA Jr, Baylin SB (1984) Relationship of tissue carcinoembryonic antigen and calcitonin to tumor virulence in medullary thyroid carcinoma. An immunohistochemical study in early, localized, and virulent disseminated stages of disease. Cancer 54(4):657-662
84. Mian C, Perrino M, Colombo C, Cavedon E, Pennelli G, Ferrero S et al (2014) Refining calcium test for the diagnosis of medullary thyroid cancer: cutoffs, procedures, and safety. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 99(5):1656-1664
85. Mirallie E, Vuillez JP, Bardet S, Frampas E, Dupas B, Ferrer L et al (2005) High frequency of bone/bone marrow involvement in advanced medullary thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90(2):779-788
86. Moley JF, DeBenedetti MK (1999) Patterns of nodal metastases in palpable medullary thyroid carcinoma: recommendations for extent of node dissection. Ann Surg 229(6):880-887; discussion 7-8
87. Moura MM, Cavaco BM, Pinto AE, Domingues R, Santos JR, Cid MO et al (2009) Correlation of RET somatic mutations with clinicopathological features in sporadic medullary thyroid carcinomas. Br J Cancer 100(11):1777-1783
88. Moura MM, Cavaco BM, Pinto AE, Leite V (2011) High prevalence of RAS mutations in RET-negative sporadic medullary thyroid carcinomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96(5):E863-E868
89. Nam SY, Roh JL, Kim JS, Lee JH, Choi SH, Kim SY (2007) Focal uptake of (18) F-fluorodeoxyglucose by thyroid in patients with nonthyroidal head and neck cancers. Clin Endocrinol 67(1):135-139
90. Netea-Maier RT, Aben KK, Casparie MK, den Heijer M, Grefte JM, Slootweg P et al (2008) Trends in incidence and mortality of thyroid carcinoma in The Netherlands between 1989 and 2003: correlation with thyroid fine-needle aspiration cytology and thyroid surgery. Int J Cancer 123(7):1681-1684
91. Niccoli P, Wion-Barbot N, Caron P, Henry JF, de Micco C, Saint Andre JP et al (1997) Interest of routine measurement of serum calcitonin: study in a large series of thyroidectomized patients. J Clinical Endocrinol Metab 82(2):338-341
92. Niccoli-Sire P, Murat A, Baudin E, Henry JF, Proye C, Bigorgne JC et al (1999) Early or prophylactic thyroidectomy in MEN 2/FMTC gene carriers: results in 71 thyroidectomized patients. The French Calcitonin Tumours Study Group (GETC). Eur J Endocrinol/Eur Fed Endocr Soc 141(5):468-474
93. O’Toole K, Fenoglio-Preiser C, Pushparaj N (1985) Endocrine changes associated with the human aging process: III. Effect of age on the number of calcitonin immunoreactive cells in the thyroid gland. Hum Pathol 16(10):991-1000
94. Ong SC, Schoder H, Patel SG, Tabangay-Lim IM, Doddamane I, Gonen M et al (2007) Diagnostic accuracy of 18F-FDG PET in restaging patients with medullary thyroid carcinoma and elevated calcitonin levels. J Nucl Med 48(4):501-507 (official publication, Society of Nuclear Medicine)
95. Oudoux A, Salaun PY, Bournaud C, Campion L, Ansquer C, Rousseau C et al (2007) Sensitivity and prognostic value of positron emission tomography with F-18-fluorodeoxyglucose and sensitivity of immunoscintigraphy in patients with medullary thyroid carcinoma treated with anticarcinoembryonic antigen-targeted radioimmunotherapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92 (12):4590-4597
96. Ozgen AG, Hamulu F, Bayraktar F, Yilmaz C, Tuzun M, Yetkin E et al (1999) Evaluation of routine basal serum calcitonin measurement for early diagnosis of medullary thyroid carcinoma in seven hundred seventy-three patients with nodular goiter. Thyroid 9(6): 579-582 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
97. Pachnis V, Mankoo B, Costantini F (1993) Expression of the c-ret proto-oncogene during mouse embryogenesis. Development 119(4):1005-1017
98. Pacini F, Schlumberger M, Dralle H, Elisei R, Smit JW, Wiersinga W et al (2006) European consensus for the management of patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma of the follicular epithelium. Eur J Endocrinol/Eur Fed Endocr Soc 154(6):787-803
99. Pacini F, Castagna MG, Cipri C, Schlumberger M (2010) Medullary thyroid carcinoma. Clinical oncology. 22(6):475-485
100. Papi G, Corsello SM, Cioni K, Pizzini AM, Corrado S, Carapezzi C et al (2006) Value of routine measurement of serum calcitonin concentrations in patients with nodular thyroid disease: a multicenter study. J Endocrinol Invest 29(5):427-437
101. Quayle FJ, Fialkowski EA, Benveniste R, Moley JF (2007) Pheochromocytoma penetrance varies by RET mutation in MEN 2A. Surgery 142(6):800-805; discussion 5 e1
102. Raue F (1998) German medullary thyroid carcinoma/multiple endocrine neoplasia registry. Langenbeck’s Arch Surg/Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Chirurgie 383(5):334-336 (German MTC/MEN Study Group. Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma/Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2)
103. Raue F, Frank-Raue K (2010) Update multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. Fam Cancer 9(3):449-457
104. Raue F, Kraimps JL, Dralle H, Cougard P, Proye C, Frilling A et al (1995) Primary hyperparathyroidism in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. J Intern Med 238(4):369-373
105. Raue F, Rondot S, Schulze E, Szpak-Ulczok S, Jarzab B, Frank-Raue K (2012) Clinical utility gene card for: multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. Eur J Hum Genet: EJHG 20(1)
106. Rendl G, Manzl M, Hitzl W, Sungler P, Pirich C (2008) Long-term prognosis of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Clin Endocrinol 69(3):497-505
107. Rink T, Truong PN, Schroth HJ, Diener J, Zimny M, Grunwald F (2009) Calculation and validation of a plasma calcitonin limit for early detection of medullary thyroid carcinoma in nodular thyroid disease. Thyroid 19(4):327-332 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
108. Romei C, Elisei R, Pinchera A, Ceccherini I, Molinaro E, Mancusi F et al (1996) Somatic mutations of the ret protooncogene in sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma are not restricted to exon 16 and are associated with tumor recurrence. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81(4):1619-1622
109. Romei C, Ugolini C, Cosci B, Torregrossa L, Vivaldi A, Ciampi R et al (2012) Low prevalence of the somatic M918T RET mutation in micro-medullary thyroid cancer. Thyroid 22(5):476-481 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
110. Saller B, Moeller L, Gorges R, Janssen OE, Mann K (2002) Role of conventional ultrasound and color Doppler sonography in the diagnosis of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diab 110(8):403-407(official journal, German Society of Endocrinology [and] German Diabetes Association)
111. Scheuba C, Kaserer K, Bieglmayer C, Asari R, Riss P, Drosten R et al (2007) Medullary thyroid microcarcinoma recommendations for treatment—a single-center experience. Surgery 142 (6):1003-1010; discussion 10 e1-3
112. Scheuba C, Kaserer K, Moritz A, Drosten R, Vierhapper H, Bieglmayer C et al (2009) Sporadic hypercalcitoninemia: clinical and therapeutic consequences. Endocr Relat Cancer 16(1):243-253
113. Schilling T, Burck J, Sinn HP, Clemens A, Otto HF, Hoppner W et al (2001) Prognostic value of codon 918 (ATG → ACG) RET proto-oncogene mutations in sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma. Int J Cancer 95(1):62-66
114. Scholten A, Schreinemakers JM, Pieterman CR, Valk GD, Vriens MR, Borel Rinkes IH (2011) Evolution of surgical treatment of primary hyperparathyroidism in patients with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. Endocr Pract 17(1):7-15 (official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists)
115. Schuetz M, Beheshti M, Oezer S, Novotny C, Paul M, Hofmann A et al (2006) Calcitonin measurements for early detection of medullary thyroid carcinoma or its premalignant conditions in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. Anticancer Res 26(1):723-727
116. Schuffenecker I, Ginet N, Goldgar D, Eng C, Chambe B, Boneu A et al (1997) Prevalence and parental origin of de novo RET mutations in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A and familial medullary thyroid carcinoma. Le Groupe d’Etude des Tumeurs a Calcitonine. Am J Hum Genet 60(1):233-237
117. Scollo C, Baudin E, Travagli JP, Caillou B, Bellon N, Leboulleux S et al (2003) Rationale for central and bilateral lymph node dissection in sporadic and hereditary medullary thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88(5):2070-2075
118. Skinner MA, Moley JA, Dilley WG, Owzar K, Debenedetti MK, Wells SA Jr (2005) Prophylactic thyroidectomy in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. N Engl J Med 353(11):1105-1113
119. Takahashi M, Ritz J, Cooper GM (1985) Activation of a novel human transforming gene, ret, by DNA rearrangement. Cell 42(2):581-588
120. Task F, Kloos RT, Eng C, Evans DB, Francis GL, Gagel RF et al (2009) Medullary thyroid cancer: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association. Thyroid 19(6): 565-612 (official journal of the American Thyroid Association)
121. Tee YY, Lowe AJ, Brand CA, Judson RT (2007) Fine-needle aspiration may miss a third of all malignancy in palpable thyroid nodules: a comprehensive literature review. Ann Surg 246 (5):714-720
122. Toledo SP, Lourenco DM Jr, Santos MA, Tavares MR, Toledo RA, Correia-Deur JE (2009) Hypercalcitoninemia is not pathognomonic of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Clinics 64 (7):699-706
123. Tomita T, Millard DM (1992) C-cell hyperplasia in secondary hyperparathyroidism. Histopathology 21(5):469-474
124. Trimboli P, Treglia G, Guidobaldi L, Romanelli F, Nigri G, Valabrega S et al (2015) Detection rate of FNA cytology in medullary thyroid carcinoma: a meta-analysis. Clin Endocrinol 82(2):280-285
125. Tuttle RM, Ganly I (2013) Risk stratification in medullary thyroid cancer: moving beyond static anatomic staging. Oral Oncol 49(7):695-701
126. Van den Bruel A, Maes A, De Potter T, Mortelmans L, Drijkoningen M, Van Damme B et al (2002) Clinical relevance of thyroid fluorodeoxyglucose-whole body positron emission tomography incidentaloma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87(4):1517-1520
127. Walter MA, Meier C, Radimerski T, Iten F, Kranzlin M, Muller-Brand J et al (2010) Procalcitonin levels predict clinical course and progression-free survival in patients with medullary thyroid cancer. Cancer 116(1):31-40
128. Walz MK, Groeben H, Alesina PF (2010) Single-access retroperitoneoscopic adrenalectomy (SARA) versus conventional retroperitoneoscopic adrenalectomy (CORA): a case-control study. World J Surg 34(6):1386-1390
129. Wells SA Jr, Haagensen DE Jr, Linehan WM, Farrell RE, Dilley WG (1978) The detection of elevated plasma levels of carcinoembryonic antigen in patients with suspected or established medullary thyroid carcinoma. Cancer 42(3 Suppl):1498-1503
130. Wells SA Jr, Robinson BG, Gagel RF, Dralle H, Fagin JA, Santoro M et al (2012) Vandetanib in patients with locally advanced or metastatic medullary thyroid cancer: a randomized, double-blind phase III trial. J Clin Oncol 30(2):134-141 (official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology)
131. Wells SA Jr, Pacini F, Robinson BG, Santoro M (2013) Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 and familial medullary thyroid carcinoma: an update. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 98(8):3149-3164
132. Wells SAJ, Asa SL, Dralle H, Elisei R, Evans DB, Gagel RF et al (2015) Revised American Thyroid Association Guidelines for the Management of Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma Thyroid 25(6):567-610
133. Whang KT, Steinwald PM, White JC, Nylen ES, Snider RH, Simon GL et al (1998) Serum calcitonin precursors in sepsis and systemic inflammation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83 (9):3296-3301
134. Wohllk N, Cote GJ, Bugalho MM, Ordonez N, Evans DB, Goepfert H et al (1996) Relevance of RET proto-oncogene mutations in sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81(10):3740-3745
135. Yip DT, Hassan M, Pazaitou-Panayiotou K, Ruan DT, Gawande AA, Gaz RD et al (2011) Preoperative basal calcitonin and tumor stage correlate with postoperative calcitonin normalization in patients undergoing initial surgical management of medullary thyroid carcinoma. Surgery 150(6):1168-1177
136. Zedenius J, Wallin G, Hamberger B, Nordenskjold M, Weber G, Larsson C (1994) Somatic and MEN 2A de novo mutations identified in the RET proto-oncogene by screening of sporadic MTC:s. Hum Mol Genet 3(8):1259-1262