Neuroimaging in autism spectrum disorder: Brain structure and function across the lifespan

The Lancet Neurology

Volumn 14, Issue 11, 2015, Pages 1121-1134

  Ecker, Christine ^a   Bookheimer, Susan Y ^b   Murphy, Declan G M ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER;

AUTISM; BRAIN DEVELOPMENT; BRAIN FUNCTION; CONNECTOME; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC RISK; HUMAN; IN VIVO STUDY; LIFESPAN; NEUROIMAGING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; STRUCTURE ANALYSIS; AGE; AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER; BRAIN; COMPLICATION; LONGEVITY; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PROCEDURES;

AGE FACTORS; AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER; BRAIN; HUMANS; LONGEVITY; NEUROIMAGING;

EID: 84944178004     PISSN: 14744422     EISSN: 14744465     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(15)00050-2     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. Wing L The autistic spectrum. Lancet 1997, 350:1761-1766.
2. Hallmayer J, Cleveland S, Torres A, et al. Genetic heritability and shared environmental factors among twin pairs with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011, 68:1095-1102.
3. Betancur C Etiological heterogeneity in autism spectrum disorders: more than 100 genetic and genomic disorders and still counting. Brain Res 2011, 1380:42-77.
4. Courchesne E Abnormal early brain development in autism. Mol Psychiatry 2002, 7(suppl 2):S21-S23.
5. Courchesne E, Karns CM, Davis HR, et al. Unusual brain growth patterns in early life in patients with autistic disorder: an MRI study. Neurology 2001, 57:245-254.
6. Carper RA, Courchesne E Localized enlargement of the frontal cortex in early autism. Biol Psychiatry 2005, 57:126-133.
7. Courchesne E, Campbell K, Solso S Brain growth across the life span in autism: age-specific changes in anatomical pathology. Brain Res 2011, 1380:138-145.
8. Gogtay N, Giedd JN, Lusk L, et al. Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood through early adulthood. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004, 101:8174-8179.
9. Hazlett HC, Poe M, Gerig G, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging and head circumference study of brain size in autism: birth through age 2 years. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005, 62:1366-1376.
10. Ecker C, Ronan L, Feng Y, et al. Intrinsic gray-matter connectivity of the brain in adults with autism spectrum disorder. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2013, 136:2799-2815.
11. Schumann CM, Bloss CS, Barnes CC, et al. Longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study of cortical development through early childhood in autism. J Neurosci 2010, 30:4419-4427.
12. Hazlett HC, Poe MD, Gerig G, et al. Early brain overgrowth in autism associated with an increase in cortical surface area before age 2 years. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011, 68:467-476.
13. Pontious A, Kowalczyk T, Englund C, Hevner RF Role of intermediate progenitor cells in cerebral cortex development. Dev Neurosci 2008, 30:24-32.
14. Miyata T, Kawaguchi A, Saito K, Kawano M, Muto T, Ogawa M Asymmetric production of surface-dividing and non-surface-dividing cortical progenitor cells. Development 2004, 131:3133-3145.
15. Noctor SC, Martínez-Cerdeño V, Ivic L, Kriegstein AR Cortical neurons arise in symmetric and asymmetric division zones and migrate through specific phases. Nat Neurosci 2004, 7:136-144.
16. Rakic P A small step for the cell, a giant leap for mankind: a hypothesis of neocortical expansion during evolution. Trends Neurosci 1995, 18:383-388.
17. Herbert MR, Ziegler DA, Deutsch CK, et al. Dissociations of cerebral cortex, subcortical and cerebral white matter volumes in autistic boys. Brain 2003, 126:1182-1192.
18. Schumann CM, Hamstra J, Goodlin-Jones BL, et al. The amygdala is enlarged in children but not adolescents with autism; the hippocampus is enlarged at all ages. J Neurosci 2004, 24:6392-6401.
19. Waiter GD, Williams JHG, Murray AD, Gilchrist A, Perrett DI, Whiten A Structural white matter deficits in high-functioning individuals with autistic spectrum disorder: a voxel-based investigation. Neuroimage 2005, 24:455-461.
20. Nordahl CW, Dierker D, Mostafavi I, et al. Cortical folding abnormalities in autism revealed by surface-based morphometry. J Neurosci 2007, 27:11725-11735.
21. Hyde KL, Samson F, Evans AC, Mottron L Neuroanatomical differences in brain areas implicated in perceptual and other core features of autism revealed by cortical thickness analysis and voxel-based morphometry. Hum Brain Mapp 2010, 31:556-566.
22. Ecker C, Ginestet C, Feng Y, et al. Brain surface anatomy in adults with autism: the relationship between surface area, cortical thickness, and autistic symptoms. JAMA Psychiatry 2013, 70:59-70.
23. Wallace GL, Robustelli B, Dankner N, Kenworthy L, Giedd JN, Martin A Increased gyrification, but comparable surface area in adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Brain 2013, 136:1956-1967.
24. Pugliese L, Catani M, Ameis S, et al. The anatomy of extended limbic pathways in Asperger syndrome: a preliminary diffusion tensor imaging tractography study. Neuroimage 2009, 47:427-434.
25. Courchesne E, Mouton PR, Calhoun ME, et al. Neuron number and size in prefrontal cortex of children with autism. JAMA 2011, 306:2001-2010.
26. Casanova MF, van Kooten IAJ, Switala AE, et al. Minicolumnar abnormalities in autism. Acta Neuropathol 2006, 112:287-303.
27. Casanova MF White matter volume increase and minicolumns in autism. Ann Neurol 2004, 56:453-454.
28. Wolff JJ, Gu H, Gerig G, et al. Differences in white matter fiber tract development present from 6 to 24 months in infants with autism. Am J Psychiatry 2012, 169:589-600.
29. Raznahan A, Wallace GL, Antezana L, et al. Compared to what? Early brain overgrowth in autism and the perils of population norms. Biol Psychiatry 2013, 74:563-575.
30. Lefebvre A, Beggiato A, Bourgeron T, Toro R Neuroanatomical diversity of corpus callosum and brain volume in autism: meta-analysis, analysis of the Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange (Abide) project, and simulation. Biol Psychiatry 2015, published online Feb 16. 10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.02.010.
31. Campbell DJ, Chang J, Chawarska K Early generalized overgrowth in autism spectrum disorder: prevalence rates, gender effects, and clinical outcomes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2014, 53:1063-1065.
32. Surén P, Stoltenberg C, Bresnahan M, et al. Early growth patterns in children with autism. Epidemiology 2013, 24:660-670.
33. Amaral DG, Schumann CM, Nordahl CW Neuroanatomy of autism. Trends Neurosci 2008, 31:137-145.
34. Redcay E, Courchesne E Deviant functional magnetic resonance imaging patterns of brain activity to speech in 2-3-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2008, 64:589-598.
35. Rojas DC, Peterson E, Winterrowd E, Reite ML, Rogers SJ, Tregellas Jr. Regional gray matter volumetric changes in autism associated with social and repetitive behavior symptoms. BMC Psychiatry 2006, 6:56.
36. Boddaert N, Chabane N, Gervais H, et al. Superior temporal sulcus anatomical abnormalities in childhood autism: a voxel-based morphometry MRI study. Neuroimage 2004, 23:364-369.
37. McAlonan GM, Daly E, Kumari V, et al. Brain anatomy and sensorimotor gating in Asperger's syndrome. Brain 2002, 125:1594-1606.
38. Lai M-C, Lombardo MV, Suckling J, et al. Biological sex affects the neurobiology of autism. Brain 2013, 136:2799-2815.
39. Lai M-C, Lombardo MV, Ruigrok ANV, et al. Cognition in males and females with autism: similarities and differences. PLoS One 2012, 7:e47198.
40. Langen M, Durston S, Staal WG, Palmen SJMC, van Engeland H Caudate nucleus is enlarged in high-functioning medication-naive subjects with autism. Biol Psychiatry 2007, 62:262-266.
41. Hollander E, Anagnostou E, Chaplin W, et al. Striatal volume on magnetic resonance imaging and repetitive behaviors in autism. Biol Psychiatry 2005, 58:226-232.
42. Nordahl CW, Scholz R, Yang X, et al. Increased rate of amygdala growth in children aged 2 to 4 years with autism spectrum disorders: a longitudinal study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2012, 69:53-61.
43. Zarei M, Mataix-Cols D, Heyman I, et al. Changes in gray matter volume and white matter microstructure in adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2011, 70:1083-1090.
44. De Bellis MD, Casey BJ, Dahl RE, et al. A pilot study of amygdala volumes in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2000, 48:51-57.
45. Beatty WW, Jocic Z, Monson N, Staton RD Memory and frontal lobe dysfunction in schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis 1993, 181:448-453.
46. Carper RA, Moses P, Tigue ZD, Courchesne E Cerebral lobes in autism: early hyperplasia and abnormal age effects. Neuroimage 2002, 16:1038-1051.
47. Lange N, Travers BG, Bigler ED, et al. Longitudinal volumetric brain changes in autism spectrum disorder ages 6-35 years. Autism Res 2015, 8:82-93.
48. Wallace GL, Dankner N, Kenworthy L, Giedd JN, Martin A Age-related temporal and parietal cortical thinning in autism spectrum disorders. Brain 2010, 133:3745-3754.
49. Zielinski BA, Prigge MBD, Nielsen JA, et al. Longitudinal changes in cortical thickness in autism and typical development. Brain 2014, 137:1799-1812.
50. Mak-Fan KM, Taylor MJ, Roberts W, Lerch JP Measures of cortical grey matter structure and development in children with autism spectrum disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2012, 42:419-427.
51. Ecker C, Shahidiani A, Feng Y, et al. The effect of age, diagnosis, and their interaction on vertex-based measures of cortical thickness and surface area in autism spectrum disorder. J Neural Transm 2014, 121:1157-1170.
52. Schumann CM, Barnes CC, Lord C, Courchesne E Amygdala enlargement in toddlers with autism related to severity of social and communication impairments. Biol Psychiatry 2009, 66:942-949.
53. Van Essen DC A tension-based theory of morphogenesis and compact wiring in the central nervous system. Nature 1997, 385:313-318.
54. Richman DP, Stewart RM, Hutchinson JW Mechanical model of brain convolutional development. Science 1975, 189:18-21.
55. Welker W Why does cerebral cortex fissure and fold? A review of determinants of gyri and sulci. Cerebral cortex 1990, 3-136. Springer US, Boston. E.G. Jones, A. Peters (Eds.).
56. Piven J, Berthier ML, Starkstein SE, Nehme E, Pearlson G, Folstein S Magnetic resonance imaging evidence for a defect of cerebral cortical development in autism. Am J Psychiatry 1990, 147:734-739.
57. Levitt JG, Blanton RE, Smalley S, et al. Cortical sulcal maps in autism. Cereb Cortex 2003, 13:728-735.
58. Hardan AY, Jou RJ, Keshavan MS, Varma R, Minshew NJ Increased frontal cortical folding in autism: a preliminary MRI study. Psychiatry Res 2004, 131:263-268.
59. Zilles K, Armstrong E, Schleicher A, Kretschmann HJ The human pattern of gyrification in the cerebral cortex. Anat Embryol 1988, 179:173-179.
60. Mietchen D, Gaser C Computational morphometry for detecting changes in brain structure due to development, aging, learning, disease and evolution. Front Neuroinform 2009, 3:25.
61. Schaer M, Ottet M-C, Scariati E, et al. Decreased frontal gyrification correlates with altered connectivity in children with autism. Front Hum Neurosci 2013, 7:750.
62. Schaer M, Cuadra MB, Tamarit L, Lazeyras F, Eliez S, Thiran J-P A surface-based approach to quantify local cortical gyrification. IEEE Trans Med Imaging 2008, 27:161-170.
63. Libero LE, DeRamus TP, Deshpande HD, Kana RK Surface-based morphometry of the cortical architecture of autism spectrum disorders: volume, thickness, area, and gyrification. Neuropsychologia 2014, 62:1-10.
64. Bartley AJ, Jones DW, Weinberger DR Genetic variability of human brain size and cortical gyral patterns. Brain 1997, 120:257-269.
65. Kates WR, Ikuta I, Burnette CP Gyrification patterns in monozygotic twin pairs varying in discordance for autism. Autism Res 2009, 2:267-278.
66. White T, Andreasen NC, Nopoulos P Brain volumes and surface morphology in monozygotic twins. Cereb Cortex 2002, 12:486-493.
67. Bailey A, Le Couteur A, Gottesman I, et al. Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin study. Psychol Med 1995, 25:63-77.
68. Critchley HD, Daly EM, Bullmore ET, et al. The functional neuroanatomy of social behaviour: changes in cerebral blood flow when people with autistic disorder process facial expressions. Brain 2000, 123:2203-2212.
69. Pierce K, Müller R-A, Ambrose J, Allen G, Courchesne E Face processing occurs outside the fusiform 'face area' in autism: evidence from functional MRI. Brain 2001, 124:2059-2073.
70. Schultz RT, Gauthier I, Klin A, et al. Abnormal ventral temporal cortical activity during face discrimination among individuals with autism and Asperger syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000, 57:331-340.
71. Ashwin C, Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S, O'Riordan M, Bullmore ET Differential activation of the amygdala and the 'social brain' during fearful face-processing in Asperger Syndrome. Neuropsychologia 2007, 45:2-14.
72. Wang AT, Dapretto M, Hariri AR, Sigman M, Bookheimer SY Neural correlates of facial affect processing in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004, 43:481-490.
73. Dalton KM, Nacewicz BM, Alexander AL, Davidson RJ Gaze-fixation, brain activation, and amygdala volume in unaffected siblings of individuals with autism. Biol Psychiatry 2007, 61:512-520.
74. Pierce K, Redcay E Fusiform function in children with an autism spectrum disorder is a matter of "who". Biol Psychiatry 2008, 64:552-560.
75. Dichter GS Functional magnetic resonance imaging of autism spectrum disorders. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2012, 14:319-351.
76. Hamilton AF Reflecting on the mirror neuron system in autism: a systematic review of current theories. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2013, 3:91-105.
77. Mueller S, Keeser D, Reiser MF, Teipel S, Meindl T Functional and structural MR imaging in neuropsychiatric disorders, part 2: application in schizophrenia and autism. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2012, 33:2033-2037.
78. Pelphrey KA, Morris JP, McCarthy G, Labar KS Perception of dynamic changes in facial affect and identity in autism. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2007, 2:140-149.
79. Koldewyn K, Whitney D, Rivera SM Neural correlates of coherent and biological motion perception in autism. Dev Sci 2011, 14:1075-1088.
80. Castelli F, Frith C, Happé F, Frith U Autism, Asperger syndrome and brain mechanisms for the attribution of mental states to animated shapes. Brain 2002, 125:1839-1849.
81. Mason RA, Williams DL, Kana RK, Minshew N, Just MA Theory of mind disruption and recruitment of the right hemisphere during narrative comprehension in autism. Neuropsychologia 2008, 46:269-280.
82. Dapretto M, Davies MS, Pfeifer JH, et al. Understanding emotions in others: mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders. Nat Neurosci 2006, 9:28-30.
83. Libero LE, Maximo JO, Deshpande HD, Klinger LG, Klinger MR, Kana RK The role of mirroring and mentalizing networks in mediating action intentions in autism. Mol Autism 2014, 5:50.
84. Martineau J, Andersson F, Barthélémy C, Cottier J-P, Destrieux C Atypical activation of the mirror neuron system during perception of hand motion in autism. Brain Res 2010, 1320:168-175.
85. Luna B, Minshew NJ, Garver KE, et al. Neocortical system abnormalities in autism: an fMRI study of spatial working memory. Neurology 2002, 59:834-840.
86. Allen G, Müller R-A, Courchesne E Cerebellar function in autism: functional magnetic resonance image activation during a simple motor task. Biol Psychiatry 2004, 56:269-278.
87. Solomon M, Ozonoff SJ, Ursu S, et al. The neural substrates of cognitive control deficits in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychologia 2009, 47:2515-2526.
88. Dichter GS, Belger A Atypical modulation of cognitive control by arousal in autism. Psychiatry Res 2008, 164:185-197.
89. Eyler LT, Pierce K, Courchesne E A failure of left temporal cortex to specialize for language is an early emerging and fundamental property of autism. Brain 2012, 135:949-960.
90. Just MA, Cherkassky VL, Keller TA, Minshew NJ Cortical activation and synchronization during sentence comprehension in high-functioning autism: evidence of underconnectivity. Brain 2004, 127:1811-1821.
91. Redcay E, Dodell-Feder D, Mavros PL, et al. Atypical brain activation patterns during a face-to-face joint attention game in adults with autism spectrum disorder. Hum Brain Mapp 2013, 34:2511-2523.
92. Scott-Van Zeeland AA, Abrahams BS, Alvarez-Retuerto AI, et al. Altered functional connectivity in frontal lobe circuits is associated with variation in the autism risk gene CNTNAP2. Sci Transl Med 2010, 2:56ra80.
93. Delmonte S, Balsters JH, McGrath J, et al. Social and monetary reward processing in autism spectrum disorders. Mol Autism 2012, 3:7.
94. Dichter GS, Richey JA, Rittenberg AM, Sabatino A, Bodfish JW Reward circuitry function in autism during face anticipation and outcomes. J Autism Dev Disord 2012, 42:147-160.
95. Dichter GS, Felder JN, Green SR, Rittenberg AM, Sasson NJ, Bodfish JW Reward circuitry function in autism spectrum disorders. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2012, 7:160-172.
96. Green SA, Rudie JD, Colich NL, et al. Overreactive brain responses to sensory stimuli in youth with autism spectrum disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2013, 52:1158-1172.
97. Kliemann D, Dziobek I, Hatri A, Baudewig J, Heekeren HR The role of the amygdala in atypical gaze on emotional faces in autism spectrum disorders. J Neurosci 2012, 32:9469-9476.
98. Biswal B, Yetkin FZ, Haughton VM, Hyde JS Functional connectivity in the motor cortex of resting human brain using echo-planar MRI. Magn Reson Med 1995, 34:537-541.
99. Wang J, Zuo X, He Y Graph-based network analysis of resting-state functional MRI. Front Syst Neurosci 2010, 4:16.
100. He Y, Wang J, Wang L, et al. Uncovering intrinsic modular organization of spontaneous brain activity in humans. PLoS One 2009, 4:e5226.
101. Di Martino A, Yan C-G, Li Q, et al. The autism brain imaging data exchange: towards a large-scale evaluation of the intrinsic brain architecture in autism. Mol Psychiatry 2014, 19:659-667.
102. Abrams DA, Lynch CJ, Cheng KM, et al. Underconnectivity between voice-selective cortex and reward circuitry in children with autism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2013, 110:12060-12065.
103. Supekar K, Uddin LQ, Khouzam A, et al. Brain hyperconnectivity in children with autism and its links to social deficits. Cell Rep 2013, 5:738-747.
104. Di Martino A, Kelly C, Grzadzinski R, et al. Aberrant striatal functional connectivity in children with autism. Biol Psychiatry 2011, 69:847-856.
105. Noonan SK, Haist F, Müller R-A Aberrant functional connectivity in autism: evidence from low-frequency BOLD signal fluctuations. Brain Res 2009, 1262:48-63.
106. Müller R-A, Shih P, Keehn B, Deyoe JR, Leyden KM, Shukla DK Underconnected, but how? A survey of functional connectivity MRI studies in autism spectrum disorders. Cereb Cortex 2011, 21:2233-2243.
107. Uddin LQ, Supekar K, Menon V Reconceptualizing functional brain connectivity in autism from a developmental perspective. Front Hum Neurosci 2013, 7:458.
108. Rubinov M, Sporns O Complex network measures of brain connectivity: uses and interpretations. Neuroimage 2010, 52:1059-1069.
109. Power JD, Barnes KA, Snyder AZ, Schlaggar BL, Petersen SE Spurious but systematic correlations in functional connectivity MRI networks arise from subject motion. Neuroimage 2012, 59:2142-2154.
110. Yendiki A, Koldewyn K, Kakunoori S, Kanwisher N, Fischl B Spurious group differences due to head motion in a diffusion MRI study. Neuroimage 2013, 88C:79-90.
111. Tyszka JM, Kennedy DP, Paul LK, Adolphs R Largely typical patterns of resting-state functional connectivity in high-functioning adults with autism. Cereb Cortex 2014, 24:1894-1905.
112. Keown CL, Shih P, Nair A, Peterson N, Mulvey ME, Müller R-A Local functional overconnectivity in posterior brain regions is associated with symptom severity in autism spectrum disorders. Cell Rep 2013, 5:567-572.
113. Maximo JO, Keown CL, Nair A, Müller R-A Approaches to local connectivity in autism using resting state functional connectivity MRI. Front Hum Neurosci 2013, 7:605.
114. Hernandez LM, Rudie JD, Green SA, Bookheimer S, Dapretto M Neural signatures of autism spectrum disorders: insights into brain network dynamics. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015, 40:171-189.
115. Rudie JD, Brown JA, Beck-Pancer D, et al. Altered functional and structural brain network organization in autism. Neuroimage Clin 2012, 2:79-94.
116. Rudie JD, Hernandez LM, Brown JA, et al. Autism-associated promoter variant in MET impacts functional and structural brain networks. Neuron 2012, 75:904-915.
117. Ray S, Miller M, Karalunas S, et al. Structural and functional connectivity of the human brain in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a rich club-organization study. Hum Brain Mapp 2014, 35:6032-6048.
118. Itahashi T, Yamada T, Watanabe H, et al. Altered network topologies and hub organization in adults with autism: a resting-state fMRI study. PLoS One 2014, 9:e94115.
119. Hazlett HC, Poe MD, Lightbody AA, et al. Trajectories of early brain volume development in fragile × syndrome and autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2012, 51:921-933.
120. Bruno JL, Garrett AS, Quintin E-M, Mazaika PK, Reiss AL Aberrant face and gaze habituation in fragile X syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 2014, 171:1099-1106.
121. Peng DX, Kelley RG, Quintin E-M, Raman M, Thompson PM, Reiss AL Cognitive and behavioral correlates of caudate subregion shape variation in fragile X syndrome. Hum Brain Mapp 2014, 35:2861-2868.
122. Schreiner MJ, Karlsgodt KH, Uddin LQ, et al. Default mode network connectivity and reciprocal social behavior in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2014, 9:1261-1267.
123. Campbell LE, Daly E, Toal F, et al. Brain and behaviour in children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome: a volumetric and voxel-based morphometry MRI study. Brain 2006, 129:1218-1228.
124. Alarcón M, Abrahams BS, Stone JL, et al. Linkage, association, and gene-expression analyses identify CNTNAP2 as an autism-susceptibility gene. Am J Hum Genet 2008, 82:150-159.
125. Clemm von Hohenberg C, Wigand MC, Kubicki M, et al. CNTNAP2 polymorphisms and structural brain connectivity: a diffusion-tensor imaging study. J Psychiatr Res 2013, 47:1349-1356.
126. Dennis EL, Jahanshad N, Rudie JD, et al. Altered structural brain connectivity in healthy carriers of the autism risk gene, CNTNAP2. Brain Connect 2011, 1:447-459.
127. Furman DJ, Chen MC, Gotlib IH Variant in oxytocin receptor gene is associated with amygdala volume. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2011, 36:891-897.
128. Wang J, Qin W, Liu B, et al. Variant in OXTR gene and functional connectivity of the hypothalamus in normal subjects. Neuroimage 2013, 81:199-204.
129. Parikshak NN, Luo R, Zhang A, et al. Integrative functional genomic analyses implicate specific molecular pathways and circuits in autism. Cell 2013, 155:1008-1021.
130. Ecker C, Suckling J, Deoni SC, et al. Brain anatomy and its relationship to behavior in adults with autism spectrum disorder: a multicenter magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2012, 69:195-209.
131. Ecker C, Spooren W, Murphy DGM Translational approaches to the biology of Autism: false dawn or a new era?. Mol Psychiatry 2013, 18:435-442.
132. Cox DD, Savoy RL Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) 'brain reading': detecting and classifying distributed patterns of fMRI activity in human visual cortex. Neuroimage 2003, 19:261-270.
133. Hranilovic D, Bujas-Petkovic Z, Vragovic R, Vuk T, Hock K, Jernej B Hyperserotonemia in adults with autistic disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 2007, 37:1934-1940.
134. Ecker C, Spooren W, Murphy D Developing new pharmacotherapies for autism. J Intern Med 2013, 274:308-320.
135. Lord C, Rutter M, Le Couteur A Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised: a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. J Autism Dev Disord 1994, 24:659-685.
136. Lord C, Rutter M, Goode S, et al. Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule: a standardized observation of communicative and social behavior. J Autism Dev Disord 1989, 19:185-212.
137. Ecker C, Rocha-Rego V, Johnston P, et al. Investigating the predictive value of whole-brain structural MR scans in autism: a pattern classification approach. Neuroimage 2010, 49:44-56.
138. Wee C-Y, Wang L, Shi F, Yap P-T, Shen D Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders using regional and interregional morphological features. Hum Brain Mapp 2014, 35:3414-3430.
139. Calderoni S, Retico A, Biagi L, Tancredi R, Muratori F, Tosetti M Female children with autism spectrum disorder: an insight from mass-univariate and pattern classification analyses. Neuroimage 2012, 59:1013-1022.
140. Hoeft F, Walter E, Lightbody AA, et al. Neuroanatomical differences in toddler boys with fragile X syndrome and idiopathic autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011, 68:295-305.
141. Coutanche MN, Thompson-Schill SL, Schultz RT Multi-voxel pattern analysis of fMRI data predicts clinical symptom severity. Neuroimage 2011, 57:113-123.
142. Sato JR, Hoexter MQ, Oliveira PP de M, et al. Inter-regional cortical thickness correlations are associated with autistic symptoms: a machine-learning approach. J Psychiatr Res 2013, 47:453-459.
143. Jiao Y, Chen R, Ke X, et al. Predictive models for subtypes of autism spectrum disorder based on single-nucleotide polymorphisms and magnetic resonance imaging. Adv Med Sci 2011, 56:334-342.
144. Simonoff E, Pickles A, Charman T, Chandler S, Loucas T, Baird G Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2008, 47:921-929.
145. Ecker C, Marquand A, Mourão-Miranda J, et al. Describing the brain in autism in five dimensions-magnetic resonance imaging-assisted diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder using a multiparameter classification approach. J Neurosci 2010, 30:10612-10623.
146. Nielsen JA, Zielinski BA, Fletcher PT, et al. Multisite functional connectivity MRI classification of autism: ABIDE results. Front Hum Neurosci 2013, 7:599.
147. Haar S, Berman S, Behrmann M, Dinstein I Anatomical abnormalities in autism?. Cereb Cortex 2014, published online Oct 14. 10.1093/cercor/bhu242.